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Language shift

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</style><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Not to be confused with <a href="Language_change" title="Language change">language change</a> or <a href="Code-switching" title="Code-switching">code-switching</a>.</div>

Language shift, also known as language transfer, language replacement or language assimilation, is the process whereby a <a href="Speech_community" title="Speech community">speech community</a> shifts to a different language, usually over an extended period of time. Often, languages that are perceived to be of <a href="Prestige_(sociolinguistics)" title="Prestige (sociolinguistics)">higher-status</a> stabilize or spread at the expense of other languages that are perceived—even by their own speakers—to have lower status. An example is the shift from <a href="Gaulish" title="Gaulish">Gaulish</a> to <a href="Latin" title="Latin">Latin</a> during the time of the <a href="Roman_Empire" title="Roman Empire">Roman Empire</a>.<a href="#cite_note-1">[1]</a><a href="#cite_note-2">[2]</a><a href="#cite_note-3">[3]</a>

Language assimilation may operate alongside other aspects of <a href="Cultural_assimilation" title="Cultural assimilation">cultural assimilation</a> when different cultures meet and merge.<a href="#cite_note-4">[4]</a><a href="#cite_note-5">[5]</a>

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Mechanisms">Mechanisms</h2></div>

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<div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Prehistory">Prehistory</h3></div>

For <a href="Prehistory" title="Prehistory">prehistory</a>, Forster et al. (2004)<a href="#cite_note-6">[6]</a> and Forster and Renfrew (2011)<a href="#cite_note-7">[7]</a> observe that there is a correlation of language shift with intrusive male <a href="Y_chromosome" title="Y chromosome">Y chromosomes</a> but not necessarily with intrusive female <a href="MtDNA" class="mw-redirect" title="MtDNA">mtDNA</a>. They conclude that technological innovation (the transition from <a href="Hunting-gathering" class="mw-redirect" title="Hunting-gathering">hunting-gathering</a> to <a href="Agriculture" title="Agriculture">farming</a>, or from <a href="Stone_tool" title="Stone tool">stone</a> to <a href="Technology#Metal_tools" title="Technology">metal</a> tools) or military prowess (as in the <a href="Norse_activity_in_the_British_Isles" class="mw-redirect" title="Norse activity in the British Isles">abduction of British women</a> by <a href="Vikings" title="Vikings">Vikings</a> to <a href="Iceland" title="Iceland">Iceland</a>) causes immigration of at least some men, who are perceived to be of higher status than local men. Then, in mixed-language marriages, children would speak the "higher-status" language, yielding the language/Y-chromosome correlation seen today.

Assimilation is the process whereby a speech-community becomes <a href="Bilingual" class="mw-redirect" title="Bilingual">bilingual</a> and gradually shifts allegiance to the second language. The rate of assimilation is the percentage of the speech-community that speaks the second language more often at home. The data are used to measure the use of a given language in the lifetime of a person, or most often across generations. When a speech-community ceases to use their original language, <a href="Language_death" title="Language death">language death</a> is said to occur.

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Indo-European_migrations">Indo-European migrations</h3></div>

<div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="Indo-European_migrations" title="Indo-European migrations">Indo-European migrations</a></div>

In the context of the Indo-European migrations, it has been noted that small groups can change a larger cultural area.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWitzel2005347-8">[8]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEAnthony2007-9">[9]</a> <a href="Michael_Witzel" title="Michael Witzel">Michael Witzel</a> refers to Ehret's model<a href="#cite_note-10">[note 1]</a> "which stresses the <a href="Osmosis" title="Osmosis">osmosis</a>, or a "billiard ball," or <a href="J._P._Mallory" title="J. P. Mallory">Mallory</a>'s Kulturkugel, effect of cultural transmission."<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWitzel2005347-8">[8]</a> According to Ehret, ethnicity and language can shift with relative ease in small societies, due to the cultural, economic and military choices made by the local population in question. The group bringing new traits may initially be small, contributing features that can be fewer in number than those of the already local culture. The emerging combined group may then initiate a recurrent, expansionist process of ethnic and language shift.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWitzel2005347-8">[8]</a>

<a href="David_W._Anthony" title="David W. Anthony">David Anthony</a> notes that the spread of the Indo-European languages probably did not happen through "chain-type folk migrations", but by the introduction of these languages by ritual and political elites, which are emulated by large groups of people.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEAnthony2007117-11">[10]</a><a href="#cite_note-12">[note 2]</a> Anthony explains:

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</style><blockquote class="templatequote">Language shift can be understood best as a social strategy through which individuals and groups compete for positions of prestige, power, and domestic security ... What is important, then, is not just dominance, but vertical social mobility and a linkage between language and access to positions of prestige and power ... A relatively small immigrant elite population can encourage widespread language shift among numerically dominant indigenes in a non-state or pre-state context if the elite employs a specific combination of encouragements and punishments. Ethnohistorical cases ... demonstrate that small elite groups have successfully imposed their languages in non-state situations.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWitzel200127-13">[11]</a></blockquote>

Anthony gives the example of the Luo-speaking Acholi in northern Uganda in the 17th and 18th century, whose language spread rapidly in the 19th century.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEAnthony2007117-118-14">[12]</a> Anthony notes that "Indo-European languages probably spread in a similar way among the tribal societies of prehistoric Europe", carried forward by "Indo-European chiefs" and their "ideology of political clientage".<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEAnthony2007118-15">[13]</a> Anthony notes that "elite recruitment" may be a suitable term for this system.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEAnthony2007118-15">[13]</a><a href="#cite_note-17">[note 3]</a>

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Modern_society">Modern society</h3></div>

In urban settings, language change occurs due to the combination of three factors: the diversity of languages spoken, the high population density, and the need for communication. Urban vernaculars, urban contact varieties, and multiethnolects emerge in many cities around the world as a result of language change in urban settings. These factors lead to phenomena such as dialect levelling, <a href="Koin%C3%A9_language" title="Koiné language">koineization</a>, and/or language shift toward a dominant language.<a href="#cite_note-:1-18">[15]</a>

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Examples">Examples</h2></div>

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Liturgical_language">Liturgical language</h3></div>

Historical examples for status shift are the early <a href="Welsh_Bible" class="mw-redirect" title="Welsh Bible">Welsh</a> and <a href="Luther_Bible" title="Luther Bible">Lutheran Bible</a> <a href="Bible_translation" class="mw-redirect" title="Bible translation">translations</a>.<a href="#cite_note-19">[16]</a>

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Austria">Austria</h3></div>

Until the mid-19th century, southern <a href="Carinthia_(state)" class="mw-redirect" title="Carinthia (state)">Carinthia</a> in <a href="Austria" title="Austria">Austria</a> had an overwhelming <a href="Slovene_language" title="Slovene language">Slovene</a>-speaking majority: in the 1820s, around 97% of the inhabitants south of the line <a href="Villach" title="Villach">Villach</a>-<a href="Klagenfurt" class="mw-redirect" title="Klagenfurt">Klagenfurt</a>-<a href="Diex" title="Diex">Diex</a> spoke Slovene as their native language.<a href="#cite_note-20">[17]</a> In the course of the 19th century, this number fell significantly. By 1920, a third of the population of the area had already shifted to <a href="German_language" title="German language">German</a> as their main language of communication. After the <a href="Carinthian_Plebiscite" class="mw-redirect" title="Carinthian Plebiscite">Carinthian Plebiscite</a> in the 1920s, and especially after <a href="World_War_II" title="World War II">World War II</a>, most of the population shifted from Slovene to German. In the same region, today only some 13% of the people speak Slovene, while more than 85% of the population speak German. The figures for the whole region are equally telling: in 1818, around 35% of the population of Carinthia spoke Slovene; by 1910, this number had fallen to 15.6% and by 2001 to 2.3%.<a href="#cite_note-21">[18]</a> These changes were almost entirely the result of a language shift in the population, with emigration and genocide (by the Nazis during World War II) playing only a minor role.

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Belarus">Belarus</h3></div>

Despite the withdrawal of <a href="Belarus" title="Belarus">Belarus</a> from the USSR proclaimed in 1991, use of the <a href="Belarusian_language" title="Belarusian language">Belarusian language</a> is declining.<a href="#cite_note-22">[19]</a> According to the 2009 Belarusian population census, 72% of Belarusians speak Russian at home,<a href="#cite_note-Census-23">[20]</a> and Belarusian is used by only 11.9% of Belarusians.<a href="#cite_note-Census-23">[20]</a> 52.5% of Belarusians can speak and read Belarusian. Only 29.4% can speak, read and write it.<a href="#cite_note-Census-23">[20]</a> One in ten Belarusians do not understand the Belarusian language.<a href="#cite_note-Census-23">[20]</a>

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Belgium">Belgium</h3></div>

<div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="Francization_of_Brussels" title="Francization of Brussels">Francization of Brussels</a></div>

In the last two centuries, <a href="Brussels" title="Brussels">Brussels</a> has transformed from an exclusively <a href="Dutch_language" title="Dutch language">Dutch-speaking</a> city to a bilingual city with <a href="French_language" title="French language">French</a> as the majority language and <a href="Lingua_franca" title="Lingua franca">lingua franca</a>. The language shift began in the 18th century and accelerated as <a href="Belgium" title="Belgium">Belgium</a> became <a href="Belgian_revolution" class="mw-redirect" title="Belgian revolution">independent</a> and Brussels expanded out past its original city boundaries.<a href="#cite_note-service-24">[21]</a><a href="#cite_note-laval-25">[22]</a> From 1880 on, more and more Dutch-speaking people became bilingual, resulting in a rise of monolingual French-speakers after 1910.

Halfway through the 20th century, the number of monolingual French-speakers began to predominate over the (mostly) bilingual Flemish inhabitants.<a href="#cite_note-brio4-26">[23]</a> Only since the 1960s, after the establishment of the Belgian <a href="Communities%2C_regions_and_language_areas_of_Belgium" class="mw-redirect" title="Communities, regions and language areas of Belgium">language border</a> and the socio-economic development of Flanders took full effect, could Dutch use stem the tide of increasing French use.<a href="#cite_note-dbnl-27">[24]</a> Now buttressed by immigration from the former <a href="French_Africa" title="French Africa">French Africa</a>, French remains the city's predominant language, while Dutch is spoken by a minority.

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Canada">Canada</h3></div>

<div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="Languages_of_Canada" title="Languages of Canada">Languages of Canada</a></div>

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="China">China</h3></div>

<div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Further information: <a href="Sinicization" title="Sinicization">Sinicization</a> and <a href="Sino-Xenic_pronunciations" class="mw-redirect" title="Sino-Xenic pronunciations">Sino-Xenic pronunciations</a></div>

Historically, one of the most important language shifts in China has been the near disappearance of the <a href="Manchu_language" title="Manchu language">Manchu language</a>. When China was ruled by the <a href="Qing_dynasty" title="Qing dynasty">Qing dynasty</a>, whose Emperors were Manchu, Chinese and Manchu had co-official status, and the Emperor heavily subsidized and promoted education in Manchu, but because most of the Manchu <a href="Eight_Banners" title="Eight Banners">Eight Banners</a> lived in garrisons with Mandarin-speaking Han Bannermen located across Han Chinese civilian populated cities, most Manchus spoke the Beijing dialect of Mandarin by the 19th century and the only Manchu speakers were garrisons left in their homeland of <a href="Heilongjiang" title="Heilongjiang">Heilongjiang</a>. Today there are fewer than 100 native speakers of Manchu.

At the current time, language shift is occurring all across China. Many languages of <a href="List_of_ethnic_groups_in_China" title="List of ethnic groups in China">minority ethnic groups</a> are declining, as well as the many regional <a href="Varieties_of_Chinese" title="Varieties of Chinese">varieties of Chinese</a>. Generally the shift is in favour of <a href="Standard_Chinese" title="Standard Chinese">Standard Chinese</a> (<a href="Mandarin_Chinese" title="Mandarin Chinese">Mandarin</a>), but in the province of <a href="Guangdong" title="Guangdong">Guangdong</a> the cultural influence of <a href="Cantonese" title="Cantonese">Cantonese</a> has meant local dialects and languages are being abandoned for Cantonese instead.<a href="#cite_note-28">[25]</a>

Languages like <a href="Tujia_language" title="Tujia language">Tujia</a> and <a href="Evenki_language" title="Evenki language">Evenki</a> are also disappearing due to language shift.

<div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="Languages_of_Hong_Kong" title="Languages of Hong Kong">Languages of Hong Kong</a></div>

In <a href="Hong_Kong" title="Hong Kong">Hong Kong</a>, Cantonese has become the dominant language spoken in society since widespread immigration to Hong Kong began in the 1940s. With immigrants of differing mother tongues, communication was hard without a dominant language. Cantonese originated from the capital of neighboring <a href="Guangzhou" title="Guangzhou">Canton</a> province, and it became the dominant language by extension, and other similar dialects started to vanish from use in Hong Kong. Original residents, or aboriginals, of Hong Kong used their own languages including the <a href="Tanka_people" class="mw-redirect" title="Tanka people">Tanka</a>, <a href="Hakka_Chinese" title="Hakka Chinese">Hakka</a> and <a href="Waitau_dialect" class="mw-redirect" title="Waitau dialect">Waitau dialect</a>, but with a majority of Hong Kong's population being immigrants by the 1940s and 50s, these dialects rapidly vanished. Most of Hong Kong's younger generation does not understand, let alone speak, their ancestral dialects.

Beginning in the late 1990s, since Hong Kong's return to Chinese sovereignty, Mandarin Chinese has been more widely implemented in education and many other areas of official society. Though Mandarin Chinese has been quickly adopted into society, most Hong Kong residents would not regard it as a first language/dialect. Most Hong Kong residents prefer to communicate in Cantonese in daily life.

Speakers of Mandarin Chinese and of Cantonese cannot mutually understand each other without learning the languages, due to vast differences in pronunciation, intonation, sentence structure and terminology. Furthermore, cultural differences between Hong Kong and China result in variations between the Cantonese used in Hong Kong and that in Canton Province.

<dl><dt>Macau</dt></dl>

Like in Hong Kong, Cantonese is also the dominant language spoken in <a href="Macau" title="Macau">Macau</a> after the widespread immigration there in the 1940s. Also, despite being a Portuguese colony for over four centuries, the <a href="Portuguese_language" title="Portuguese language">Portuguese language</a> was never widely spoken in Macau and remained limited to administration and higher education. It was spoken primarily by the Portuguese settlers, Macanese people, and elites and middle-class people of pure Chinese blood. As a consequence, when Macau was handed back to China in 1999, Portuguese did not have a strong presence like English had in Hong Kong and continued its decline which began when Macau was still under Portuguese rule. Thus, even the <a href="Macanese_people" title="Macanese people">Macanese people</a> (<a href="Mesti%C3%A7o" title="Mestiço">Eurasians</a> of mixed Portuguese and Chinese blood) switched from Portuguese to Cantonese as their first language, and the Eurasian children aside from those of pure Chinese blood switched from Portuguese- to English-medium high school education, particularly as many of parents recognised the reducing value of Portuguese schooling. Most Macanese at present learn Portuguese as foreign language.<a href="#cite_note-29">[26]</a> Since Macau's return to Chinese sovereignty at the start of the new millenium, Mandarin Chinese has also been more widely implemented in education and many other areas of official society. However, most Macau residents would not regard it as a first language/dialect and choose to speak Cantonese in daily life.

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Egypt">Egypt</h3></div>

In <a href="Egypt" title="Egypt">Egypt</a>, the <a href="Coptic_language" title="Coptic language">Coptic language</a>, a descendant of the <a href="Afroasiatic_languages" title="Afroasiatic languages">Afro-Asiatic</a> <a href="Egyptian_language" title="Egyptian language">Egyptian language</a>, has been in decline in usage since the time of the <a href="Muslim_conquest_of_Egypt" class="mw-redirect" title="Muslim conquest of Egypt">Arab conquest</a> in the 7th century. By the 17th century,<a href="#cite_note-30">[27]</a> it was eventually supplanted as a spoken language by <a href="Egyptian_Arabic" title="Egyptian Arabic">Egyptian Arabic</a>. Coptic is today mainly used by the <a href="Coptic_Orthodox_Church_of_Alexandria" class="mw-redirect" title="Coptic Orthodox Church of Alexandria">Coptic Church</a> as a liturgical language. In the <a href="Siwa_Oasis" title="Siwa Oasis">Siwa Oasis</a>, a <a href="Siwi_language" title="Siwi language">local variety</a> of <a href="Berber_languages" title="Berber languages">Berber</a> is also used alongside Arabic.

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Ethiopia">Ethiopia</h3></div>

In <a href="Ethiopia" title="Ethiopia">Ethiopia</a>, various populations of <a href="Nilotic_peoples" title="Nilotic peoples">Nilotic</a> origin have shifted languages over the centuries, adopting the idioms of their Afro-Asiatic-speaking neighbors in the northern areas. Among these groups are the <a href="Daasanach_people" title="Daasanach people">Daasanach</a> or Marille, who today speak the <a href="Daasanach_language" title="Daasanach language">Daasanach language</a>. It belongs to the <a href="Cushitic_language" class="mw-redirect" title="Cushitic language">Cushitic</a> branch of the Afro-Asiatic family. However, modern genetic analysis of the Daasanach indicates that they are more closely related to <a href="Nilo-Saharan_languages" title="Nilo-Saharan languages">Nilo-Saharan</a> and <a href="Niger-Congo_languages" class="mw-redirect" title="Niger-Congo languages">Niger-Congo</a>-speaking populations inhabiting <a href="Tanzania" title="Tanzania">Tanzania</a> than they are to the Cushitic and <a href="Semitic_languages" title="Semitic languages">Semitic</a> Afro-Asiatic-speaking populations of Ethiopia. This suggests that the Daasanach were originally Nilo-Saharan speakers, sharing common origins with the <a href="Pokot_people" title="Pokot people">Pokot</a>. In the 19th century, the Nilotic ancestors of these two populations are believed to have begun separate migrations, with one group heading southwards into the <a href="African_Great_Lakes" title="African Great Lakes">African Great Lakes</a> region and the other group settling in southern Ethiopia. There, the early Daasanach Nilotes would have come into contact with a Cushitic-speaking population, and eventually adopted this group's Afro-Asiatic language.<a href="#cite_note-31">[28]</a>

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Finland">Finland</h3></div>

<a href="Finland" title="Finland">Finland</a> still has coastal <a href="Finland_Swedish" title="Finland Swedish">Swedish-speaking enclaves</a>, unlike <a href="Estonia" title="Estonia">Estonia</a> where the last coastal Swedes were decimated or escaped to <a href="Sweden" title="Sweden">Sweden</a> in 1944. As Finland was part of the Sweden realm from the Middle Ages until 1809, the language of education was <a href="Swedish_language" title="Swedish language">Swedish</a>, with <a href="Finnish_language" title="Finnish language">Finnish</a> being allowed as a medium of education at the <a href="Universities_in_Finland" class="mw-redirect" title="Universities in Finland">university</a> only in the 19th century, and the first thesis in Finnish being published in 1858. Several of the coastal cities were multilingual; <a href="Viipuri" class="mw-redirect" title="Viipuri">Viipuri</a> had newspapers in <a href="Swedish_language" title="Swedish language">Swedish</a>, <a href="Finnish_language" title="Finnish language">Finnish</a>, <a href="Russian_language" title="Russian language">Russian</a> and <a href="German_language" title="German language">German</a>. However, the industrialization in the prewar era and especially the postwar era and the "escape from the countryside" of the 1960s changed the demography of the major cities and led to Finnish dominating. While <a href="Helsinki" title="Helsinki">Helsinki</a> was a predominantly Swedish-speaking city prior to the turn of the 20th century, the <a href="Swedish-speaking_Finns" class="mw-redirect" title="Swedish-speaking Finns">Swedish-speaking minority</a> is now about 6% of the population.<a href="#cite_note-32">[29]</a>

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="France">France</h3></div>

<div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="Francization" title="Francization">Francization</a></div>

<dl><dt>Alsace and Lorraine</dt></dl>

<div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="Linguistic_boundary_of_Moselle" title="Linguistic boundary of Moselle">Linguistic boundary of Moselle</a></div>

In <a href="Alsace" title="Alsace">Alsace</a>, <a href="France" title="France">France</a>, a longtime <a href="Alsatian_language" class="mw-redirect" title="Alsatian language">Alsatian</a>-speaking region, the native Germanic dialect has been declining after a period of being banned at school by the French government after the <a href="First_World_War" class="mw-redirect" title="First World War">First World War</a> and the <a href="Second_World_War" class="mw-redirect" title="Second World War">Second World War</a>. It is being replaced by French.<a href="#cite_note-33">[30]</a>

<dl><dt>French Flanders</dt></dl>

<a href="French_Flanders" title="French Flanders">French Flanders</a>, which gradually became part of France between 1659 and 1678, was historically part of the <a href="Dutch_language" title="Dutch language">Dutch sprachraum</a>, the native dialect being <a href="West_Flemish" title="West Flemish">West Flemish</a> (<a href="French_Flemish" title="French Flemish">French Flemish</a>). This is corroborated by the Dutch origin of several town names in the region, such as that of 'Dunkerque' (<a href="Dunkirk" title="Dunkirk">Dunkirk</a>) which is a French phonetic rendition of the original Dutch name 'Duinkerke' (meaning 'church in the dunes'). The linguistic situation did not change dramatically until the <a href="French_Revolution" title="French Revolution">French Revolution</a> in 1789, and Dutch continued to fulfill the main functions of a cultural language throughout the 18th century.<a href="#cite_note-hugo-34">[31]</a> During the 19th century, especially in the second half of it, Dutch was banned from all levels of education and lost most of its functions as a cultural language. The larger cities had become predominantly French-speaking by the end of the 19th century.

However, in the countryside, many elementary schools continued to teach in Dutch until <a href="World_War_I" title="World War I">World War I</a>, and the <a href="Roman_Catholic_Church" class="mw-redirect" title="Roman Catholic Church">Roman Catholic Church</a> continued to preach and teach the <a href="Catechism" title="Catechism">catechism</a> in Flemish in many parishes.<a href="#cite_note-hugo-34">[31]</a> Nonetheless, since French enjoyed a much higher status than Dutch, from about the interbellum onward, everybody became bilingual, the generation born after World War II being raised exclusively in French. In the countryside, the passing on of Flemish stopped during the 1930s or 1940s. Consequently, the vast majority of those still having an active command of Flemish are older than 60.<a href="#cite_note-hugo-34">[31]</a> Therefore, complete extinction of <a href="French_Flemish" title="French Flemish">French Flemish</a> can be expected in the coming decades.<a href="#cite_note-hugo-34">[31]</a>

<dl><dt>Basque Country</dt></dl>

The <a href="French_Basque_Country" title="French Basque Country">French Basque Country</a> has been subject to intense French-language pressure exerted over the Basque-speaking communities. In the late 1800s, the <a href="Basque_language" title="Basque language">Basque language</a> was both persecuted and excluded from administration and official public use during the takeover of the <a href="National_Convention" title="National Convention">National Convention</a>, during the <a href="War_of_the_Pyrenees" title="War of the Pyrenees">War of the Pyrenees</a>, and during the <a href="Napoleonic_era" title="Napoleonic era">Napoleonic period</a>. The compulsory national education system imposed early on a French-only approach (mid-19th century), marginalizing Basque, and by the 1960s family transmission was grinding to a halt in many areas at the feet of the Pyrenees.

By the 2010s, the receding trend has been somewhat mitigated by the establishment of Basque schooling (the <a href="Ikastola" title="Ikastola">ikastolak</a>) spearheaded by the network Seaska, as well as the influence of the <a href="Southern_Basque_Country" title="Southern Basque Country">Basque territories from Spain</a>.

<dl><dt>Brittany</dt></dl>

<div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="Linguistic_boundary_of_Brittany" title="Linguistic boundary of Brittany">Linguistic boundary of Brittany</a></div>

According to <a href="Fa%C3%B1ch_Broudic" class="mw-redirect" title="Fañch Broudic">Fañch Broudic</a>, <a href="Breton_language" title="Breton language">Breton</a> has lost 80% of its speakers in 60 years.<a href="#cite_note-35">[32]</a> Other sources mention that 70% of Breton speakers are over 60. Furthermore, 60% of children received Breton from their parents in the 1920s and only 6% in the 1980s.<a href="#cite_note-36">[33]</a> Since the 1980s, monolingual speakers are no longer attested.

On the 27 October 2015, the <a href="Senate_(France)" title="Senate (France)">Senate</a> rejected the draft law on ratification of the <a href="European_Charter_for_Regional_or_Minority_Languages" title="European Charter for Regional or Minority Languages">European Charter for Regional or Minority Languages</a> driving away the assumption of Congress for the adoption of the constitutional reform which would have given value and legitimacy to regional languages such as Breton.<a href="#cite_note-37">[34]</a>

<dl><dt>Corsica</dt></dl>

<a href="Corsican_language" title="Corsican language">Corsican</a> was long employed as a conglomerate of local <a href="Vernacular" title="Vernacular">vernaculars</a> in combination with <a href="Italian_language" title="Italian language">Italian</a>, the official language in Corsica until 1859; afterwards Italian was replaced by French, owing to the acquisition of the island by France from <a href="Republic_of_Genoa" title="Republic of Genoa">Genoa</a> in 1768. Over the next two centuries, the use of French grew to the extent that, by the <a href="Liberation_of_France" title="Liberation of France">Liberation</a> in 1945, all islanders had a working knowledge of French. The 20th century saw a wholesale language shift, with islanders changing their language practices to the extent that there were no monolingual Corsican speakers left by the 1960s. By 1995, an estimated 65 percent of islanders had some degree of proficiency in Corsican,<a href="#cite_note-38">[35]</a> and a small minority, perhaps 10 percent, used Corsican as a first language.<a href="#cite_note-cif-39">[36]</a>

<dl><dt>Occitania</dt></dl>

<div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="Vergonha" title="Vergonha">Vergonha</a></div>

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Germany">Germany</h3></div>

<dl><dt>Southern Schleswig</dt></dl>

In <a href="Southern_Schleswig" title="Southern Schleswig">Southern Schleswig</a>, an area that belonged to Denmark until the <a href="Second_Schleswig_War" title="Second Schleswig War">Second Schleswig War</a>, there was a language shift from the 17th to the 20th centuries from <a href="Danish_language" title="Danish language">Danish</a> and <a href="North_Frisian_language" title="North Frisian language">North Frisian</a> dialects to Low German and later High German. Historically, most of the region was part of the Danish and North Frisian language area, adjacent in the south to the German-speaking Holstein. But with the <a href="Reformation" title="Reformation">Reformation</a> in the 16th century German became the language of the Church, and in the 19th century also that of schools in the southern parts of Schleswig. Added to this was the influence of German-speaking Holsatian nobility and traders. German was (occasionally) also spoken at the royal court in Copenhagen. This political and economic development led gradually to a German language dominating in the southern parts of Schleswig. Native dialects such as the <a href="Angel_Danish" title="Angel Danish">Angel Danish</a><a href="#cite_note-Mittelniederdeutsch_und_heutiges_Pl-40">[37]</a> and <a href="Eiderstedt_Frisian" title="Eiderstedt Frisian">Eiderstedt Frisian</a> vanished. In the <a href="Flensburg" title="Flensburg">Flensburg</a> area, there arose the mixed language <a href="Petuh" title="Petuh">Petuh</a> combining Danish and German elements. As late as in 1851 (in the period of nationalization) the Danish government tried to stop the language shift, but without success in the long run. After the Second Schleswig War the Prussians introduced a number of language policy measures in the opposite direction to expand the use of (High) German as the language of administration, schooling and church services.<a href="#cite_note-Mittelniederdeutsch_und_heutiges_Pl-40">[37]</a><a href="#cite_note-41">[38]</a><a href="#cite_note-42">[39]</a>

Today, Danish and North Frisian are recognized as minority languages in the federal state of <a href="Schleswig-Holstein" title="Schleswig-Holstein">Schleswig-Holstein</a>.

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Hungary">Hungary</h3></div>

<a href="Cumans" title="Cumans">Cumans</a>, seeking refuge from the <a href="Mongols" title="Mongols">Mongols</a>, settled in Hungary and were later <a href="Magyarization" title="Magyarization">Magyarized</a>. The <a href="Jassic_people" class="mw-redirect" title="Jassic people">Jassic</a> people of Hungary originally spoke the Jassic dialect of <a href="Ossetic" class="mw-redirect" title="Ossetic">Ossetic</a>, but they fully adopted <a href="Hungarian_language" title="Hungarian language">Magyar</a>, forgetting their former language. The territory of today's Hungary was formerly settled by <a href="Slavic_people" class="mw-redirect" title="Slavic people">Slavonic</a> tribes, which gradually assimilated to Magyar. Also, language shift may have happened in Hungarian pre-history, as the prehistoric culture of Magyars shows very little similarity to that of speakers of other <a href="Uralic_languages" title="Uralic languages">Uralic languages</a>.

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="India">India</h3></div>

<div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="List_of_endangered_languages_in_India" title="List of endangered languages in India">List of endangered languages in India</a></div>

In India, many languages are assimilated into standard language like <a href="Hindi" title="Hindi">Hindi</a>, Bengali and other administrative languages.<a href="#cite_note-43">[40]</a><a href="#cite_note-44">[41]</a> For example, the <a href="Austroasiatic_language" class="mw-redirect" title="Austroasiatic language">Austroasiatic</a>-speaking <a href="Bhumij_people" title="Bhumij people">Bhumij</a> tribe for over two centuries nearly abandoned their native language and adopted <a href="Bengali_language" title="Bengali language">Bengali</a> and <a href="Odia_language" title="Odia language">Odia</a> instead. Today, the <a href="Bhumij_language" title="Bhumij language">Bhumij language</a> is one of the <a href="Endangered_language" title="Endangered language">endangered languages</a> of India.

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Indonesia">Indonesia</h3></div>

Indonesia is one of the most multilingual and multiethnic nations in the world.<a href="#cite_note-45">[42]</a> There is language shift of first language into <a href="Indonesian_language" title="Indonesian language">Indonesian</a> from other language in Indonesia caused by ethnic diversity than urbanicity. Regardless of urbanicity, Indonesian speakers are more prevalent in urban areas than rural ones. The study found that language shift is mainly occurring among <a href="Javanese_people" title="Javanese people">Javanese people</a> and in districts where <a href="Javanese_language" title="Javanese language">Javanese</a> is the dominant language, which is not what was expected.<a href="#cite_note-:1-18">[15]</a> Another study suggests Javanese youths do not value Javanese language and culture as much as the national Indonesian language and culture because they perceive them as outdated and incompatible with modern society.<a href="#cite_note-46">[43]</a>

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Ireland">Ireland</h3></div>

<div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="History_of_the_Irish_language#Nineteenth_and_twentieth_centuries" title="History of the Irish language">History of the Irish language § Nineteenth and twentieth centuries</a></div>

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Israel">Israel</h3></div>

An example is the shift from Canaanite and Phoenician and Hebrew to Aramaic in and around Jerusalem during the time of Classical Antiquity. Another example is during the Middle Ages, when shifting from Aramaic to Arabic through the advent of Islam. A third shift took place in Modern times, under the influence of <a href="Zionism" title="Zionism">Zionism</a>, from <a href="Jewish_languages" title="Jewish languages">Jewish languages</a> such as <a href="Yiddish" title="Yiddish">Yiddish</a>, <a href="Judaeo-Spanish" title="Judaeo-Spanish">Ladino</a> and various dialects of <a href="Judeo-Arabic" title="Judeo-Arabic">Judeo-Arabic</a> to <a href="Modern_Hebrew" title="Modern Hebrew">Modern Hebrew</a>.

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Italy">Italy</h3></div>

<div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="Italianization" title="Italianization">Italianization</a></div>

The <a href="Italian_peninsula" title="Italian peninsula">Italian peninsula</a>, the <a href="Po_river" class="mw-redirect" title="Po river">Po river</a> basin and the nearby islands are home to <a href="Languages_of_Italy" title="Languages of Italy">various languages</a>, most of which are Latin-derived. Italy would be politically organized into states until the late 19th century.

Since the times of the <a href="Italian_Renaissance" title="Italian Renaissance">Renaissance</a>, a trans-Italian language was developed in <a href="Central_Italy" title="Central Italy">central Italy</a>, based on <a href="Florence" title="Florence">Florentine</a> <a href="Tuscan_dialect" title="Tuscan dialect">Tuscan</a>; in light of its cultural prestige, it was used for formal, literary and written purposes among the literate classes from the various states of mainland Italy, <a href="Sicily" title="Sicily">Sicily</a> and Corsica (France), sidelining the other dialects in education and formal settings. Thus, literary <a href="Florentine_dialect" title="Florentine dialect">Florentine</a> was established as the most representative dialect of Italy long before its <a href="Risorgimento" class="mw-redirect" title="Risorgimento">political unification</a> in 1861, Tuscan having been officially adopted by the preunitarian states. Italian further expanded as a common language for everyday use throughout the country after World War II.

Most other languages, with the exception of those spoken by <a href="Languages_of_Italy#Historical_linguistic_minorities" title="Languages of Italy">specific ethno-linguistic groups</a>, long served as local vernaculars alongside Italian; therefore they have been mislabelled "dialects" by their own speakers, but they are still usually spoken just as much as standard Italian in a <a href="Diglossia" title="Diglossia">diglossic</a> spectrum with little conflict.

For instance, the local <a href="Venetian_language" title="Venetian language">Venetian dialects</a> in <a href="Northeast_Italy" title="Northeast Italy">Northeast Italy</a> are widely used and locally promoted in the region; after all, Italian had been an integral part of the <a href="Republic_of_Venice" title="Republic of Venice">Republic of Venice</a> since the 14th century, whose elites used to revere the most prominent Tuscan authors and tuscanize their own speech as well.<a href="#cite_note-47">[44]</a> On a survey made by <a href="Il_Gazzettino" title="Il Gazzettino">Il Gazzettino</a> in 2015, 70% of respondents told they spoke <a href="Venetian_language" title="Venetian language">Venetian</a> "very or quite often" in the family, while 68% with friends. A much lower percentage reported to use it at work (35%); the local language is less used in formal situations. However, the frequency of use within the family networks and friendship stopped respectively at -4 and -11 percentage points, suggesting a slow morphing to Italian, while the use in the workplace dropped to -22 percentage points. A visible generational gap has also been noted, since the students and young people under the age of 25 are the social group where the use of dialect fell below the threshold of absolute majority (respectively 43 and 41%).<a href="#cite_note-48">[45]</a> Nonetheless, despite some tendencies signalling the slow advancement of standard Italian, the <a href="Venetian_language" title="Venetian language">local dialects</a> of <a href="Veneto" title="Veneto">Veneto</a> and the <a href="Province_of_Trieste" title="Province of Trieste">Province of Trieste</a> are still widely spoken alongside Italian; like in much of Italy, the presence of Italian in <a href="Northeast_Italy" title="Northeast Italy">Northeast Italy</a> does not seem to take anything away from the region's linguistic heritage.<a href="#cite_note-49">[46]</a><a href="#cite_note-Istat2015-50">[47]</a>

Like the aforementioned case of Northeast Italy, even in <a href="Southern_Italy" title="Southern Italy">Southern Italy</a> and <a href="Sicily" title="Sicily">Sicily</a> the local dialects from the <a href="Italo-Dalmatian_languages" title="Italo-Dalmatian languages">Italo-Dalmatian family</a> are widely used in combination with standard Italian, depending upon the social context. More specifically, Italian as the prevalent language spoken among family members is spoken the least in <a href="Campania" title="Campania">Campania</a> (20.7%), <a href="Calabria" title="Calabria">Calabria</a> (25.3%) and <a href="Sicily" title="Sicily">Sicily</a> (26.6%), contrary to frequency of use of the local dialects (<a href="Basilicata" title="Basilicata">Basilicata</a>, 69.4%; Calabria 68.6%; Campania, 75.2%; Sicily, 68.8%).<a href="#cite_note-Istat2015-50">[47]</a>

<dl><dt>Germanic languages</dt></dl>

<div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="Italianization_of_South_Tyrol" title="Italianization of South Tyrol">Italianization of South Tyrol</a></div>

<a href="Trentino" title="Trentino">Trentino</a>'s <a href="Cimbrian_language" title="Cimbrian language">Cimbrian</a>, a <a href="Germanic_languages" title="Germanic languages">Germanic language</a> related to <a href="Bavarian_language" title="Bavarian language">Bavarian</a>, was spoken by at least 20,000 people in the 19th century, with 3,762 people in 1921 and fewer than 300 in 2007.<a href="#cite_note-51">[48]</a> The same scenario goes for <a href="M%C3%B2cheno_language" title="Mòcheno language">Mòcheno</a> and <a href="Walser_German" title="Walser German">Walser</a>.

<dl><dt>Sardinia</dt></dl>

<div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main articles: <a href="Italianization#Sardinia" title="Italianization">Italianization of Sardinia</a>, <a href="Sardinian_language#Savoyard_period_–_Italian_influence" title="Sardinian language">Italian influence on the Sardinian language</a>, and <a href="Sardinian_language#Present_situation" title="Sardinian language">Present situation of the Sardinian language</a></div>

Unlike the neighbouring island of Corsica<a href="#cite_note-52">[49]</a> (France) and elsewhere in today's Italy, where Italian was the standard language shared by the various local elites since the late Middle Ages, Italian was first officially introduced to Sardinia, to the detriment of both <a href="Spanish_language" title="Spanish language">Spanish</a> and <a href="Sardinian_language" title="Sardinian language">Sardinian</a> (the only surviving Neo-Latin language from the <a href="Southern_Romance_languages" title="Southern Romance languages">Southern branch</a>), only in 1760 and 1764 by the then-ruling <a href="House_of_Savoy" title="House of Savoy">House of Savoy</a>, from <a href="Principality_of_Piedmont" class="mw-redirect" title="Principality of Piedmont">Piedmont</a>.<a href="#cite_note-53">[50]</a><a href="#cite_note-54">[51]</a><a href="#cite_note-Bolognesi-55">[52]</a><a href="#cite_note-56">[53]</a> Because of the promotion and enforcement of the Italian language and culture upon the <a href="Sardinians" title="Sardinians">Sardinian population</a> since then, the majority of the locals switched over to such politically dominant language and no longer speak their native ones, which have seen steady decline in use. The language has been in fact severely compromised to the point that only 13% of the children are able to speak it,<a href="#cite_note-57">[54]</a> and today is mostly kept as a <a href="Heritage_language" title="Heritage language">heritage language</a>. With the exception of a few sparsely populated areas where Sardinian can still be heard for everyday purposes, the island's indigenous languages have by now been therefore largely replaced by Italian; the <a href="Language_contact" title="Language contact">language contact</a> ultimately resulted in the emergence of a <a href="Regional_Italian#Sardinia" title="Regional Italian">specific variety of Italian</a>, slightly divergent from the standard one.

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Lithuania">Lithuania</h3></div>

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</style><div class="thumb tmulti tright"><div class="thumbinner multiimageinner" style="width:401px;max-width:401px"><div class="trow"><div class="tsingle" style="width:162px;max-width:162px"><div class="thumbimage"></div></div><div class="tsingle" style="width:235px;max-width:235px"><div class="thumbimage"></div></div></div><div class="trow" style="display:flex"><div class="thumbcaption">Territory where <a href="Lithuanian_language" title="Lithuanian language">Lithuanian language</a> was dominant in the 16th century according to the research of historians and linguists and a territory where <a href="Lithuanian_language" title="Lithuanian language">Lithuanian language</a> was dominant in the 1930s, a map by Polish linguist <a href="Jan_Micha%C5%82_Rozwadowski" title="Jan Michał Rozwadowski">Jan Michał Rozwadowski</a> shows a retreat of the language to the north and west and a language shift, most notably – around <a href="Vilnius" title="Vilnius">Vilnius</a>.</div></div></div></div>

Due to language shift, ethnographic borders of <a href="Lithuanian_language" title="Lithuanian language">Lithuanian language</a> from the Middle Ages to the late 1930s shrank sharply to the north and west from the territory what is now <a href="Grodno_oblast" class="mw-redirect" title="Grodno oblast">Grodno oblast</a> in <a href="Belarus" title="Belarus">Belarus</a>, giving way to the spreading <a href="Polish_language" title="Polish language">Polish</a> and <a href="Belarusian_language" title="Belarusian language">Belarusian languages</a>, while in <a href="Prussian_Lithuania" class="mw-redirect" title="Prussian Lithuania">Prussian Lithuania</a> out of 10 administrative units with prevailing Lithuanian language in the early 1800s, only the extreme northern part – <a href="Klaip%C4%97da_region" class="mw-redirect" title="Klaipėda region">Klaipėda region</a> had still relative Lithuanian language majority in the 1910s with all the eastern and southern territories in some hundred or so years almost fully <a href="Germanization" class="mw-redirect" title="Germanization">Germanized</a>. These processes were happening both because of the perception of population as Lithuanian language was seen as of lower status by its peripheral speakers as well as deliberate policy by <a href="German_Empire" title="German Empire">German</a> and <a href="Russian_Empire" title="Russian Empire">Russian</a> imperial administrations, notably – <a href="Lithuanian_press_ban" title="Lithuanian press ban">a 40-year ban on Lithuanian language and press</a> by the <a href="Tsar#Russia" title="Tsar">Tsarist government</a>. In <a href="Lithuania_Minor" title="Lithuania Minor">Lithuania Minor</a>, where Lithuanian culture began to decline after <a href="Great_Northern_War_plague_outbreak#Prussia" title="Great Northern War plague outbreak">The Great Plague</a> between 1708 and 1711, <a href="Kristijonas_Donelaitis" title="Kristijonas Donelaitis">Kristijonas Donelaitis</a>' poem – <a href="The_Seasons_(poem)" title="The Seasons (poem)">The Seasons</a> addressed this issue. In <a href="Podlaskie_Voivodeship" title="Podlaskie Voivodeship">Northern Poland</a> during the Middle Ages, the territory of <a href="Lithuanian_language" title="Lithuanian language">Lithuanian language</a> was reaching vicinities of <a href="%C5%81om%C5%BCa" title="Łomża">Łomża</a>, <a href="Tykocin" title="Tykocin">Tykocin</a> and <a href="Bia%C5%82ystok" title="Białystok">Białystok</a>, but shrank to the north – to the rural outskirts of <a href="Sejny" title="Sejny">Sejny</a>, <a href="Punsk" class="mw-redirect" title="Punsk">Punsk</a> and <a href="Wi%C5%BCajny" title="Wiżajny">Wiżajny</a> before the 1900s as a consequence of <a href="Acculturation" title="Acculturation">acculturation</a>.<a href="#cite_note-58">[55]</a> The Polish-speaking island to the north of <a href="Kaunas" title="Kaunas">Kaunas</a> and south of <a href="Panev%C4%97%C5%BEys" title="Panevėžys">Panevėžys</a> almost fully disappeared between the 1920s and the 1940s, as the local Lithuanian population, who increasingly began to speak <a href="Polish_language" title="Polish language">Polish</a> on a daily basis and at home during the 19th century (especially after the 1831 <a href="January_Uprising#Uprising_spreads_to_Lithuania" title="January Uprising">November Uprising</a> and the 1863 <a href="January_Uprising" title="January Uprising">January Uprising</a>) gradually returned back to the Lithuanian language.

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Malta">Malta</h3></div>

<div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="Languages_of_Malta" title="Languages of Malta">Languages of Malta</a></div>

Before the 1930s, <a href="Italian_language" title="Italian language">Italian</a> was the only official language of Malta, although it was spoken only by the upper class, with <a href="Maltese_language" title="Maltese language">Maltese</a> being spoken by the lower class. Even though English has replaced Italian as a co-official language alongside Maltese, the Italian-speaking population has since grown, but the growth of English in the country now threatens the status of Maltese. A trend among the younger generations is to mix English and Italian vocabulary patterns, in <a href="Productivity_(linguistics)" title="Productivity (linguistics)">making new</a> Maltese words. For example, the Maltese word bibljoteka has been overtaken by librerija, formed from library with an Italian ending. In addition to mixing English with Italian, <a href="Maltenglish" title="Maltenglish">Maltenglish</a> involves the use of English words in Maltese sentences. Trends show that English is becoming the language of choice for more and more people, and is transforming the Maltese language.

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Pakistan">Pakistan</h3></div>

<div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="Urdu_language" class="mw-redirect" title="Urdu language">Urdu language</a></div>

Urdu, the lingua franca of South Asian <a href="Muslims" title="Muslims">Muslims</a> and the official and national language of Pakistan since its independence, is spoken by most educated <a href="Pakistanis" title="Pakistanis">Pakistanis</a>.<a href="#cite_note-59">[56]</a> Despite positive attitudes towards <a href="Punjabi_language" title="Punjabi language">Punjabi</a> in the urban areas of <a href="Punjab%2C_Pakistan" title="Punjab, Pakistan">Pakistani Punjab</a>, there is a shift towards Urdu in almost all domains.<a href="#cite_note-60">[57]</a> <a href="Pashtuns" title="Pashtuns">Pashtuns</a> and other minorities in northern Pakistan use Urdu as a replacement for former native languages.<a href="#cite_note-61">[58]</a>

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Paraguay">Paraguay</h3></div>

<div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="Guarani_language" title="Guarani language">Guarani language</a></div>

Guarani, an indigenous language of <a href="South_America" title="South America">South America</a> belonging to the <a href="Tupi%E2%80%93Guarani" class="mw-redirect" title="Tupi–Guarani">Tupi–Guarani</a> family<a href="#cite_note-62">[59]</a> of the <a href="Tupian_languages" title="Tupian languages">Tupian languages</a>, and specifically the primary variety known as Paraguayan Guarani (<a href="Endonym" class="mw-redirect" title="Endonym">endonym</a> avañe'ẽ [aʋãɲẽˈʔẽ]; 'the people's language'), is one of the official languages of <a href="Paraguay" title="Paraguay">Paraguay</a> (along with <a href="Spanish_language" title="Spanish language">Spanish</a>), where it is spoken by the majority of the population, and where half of the rural population is monolingual.<a href="#cite_note-63">[60]</a><a href="#cite_note-64">[61]</a> Guarani is one of the most-widely spoken <a href="Indigenous_languages_of_the_Americas" title="Indigenous languages of the Americas">indigenous languages of the Americas</a> and the only one whose speakers include a large proportion of non-indigenous people. This represents a unique anomaly in the Americas, where language shift towards European colonial languages has otherwise been a nearly universal cultural and identity marker of <a href="Mestizo" title="Mestizo">mestizos</a> (people of mixed <a href="Spanish_people" class="mw-redirect" title="Spanish people">Spanish</a> and <a href="Amerindian" class="mw-redirect" title="Amerindian">Amerindian</a> ancestry), and also of <a href="Cultural_assimilation" title="Cultural assimilation">culturally assimilated</a>, upwardly mobile Amerindian people.

Paraguayan Guarani has been used throughout Paraguayan history as a symbol of nationalistic pride. <a href="Populist" class="mw-redirect" title="Populist">Populist</a> dictators such as <a href="Jos%C3%A9_Gaspar_Rodr%C3%ADguez_de_Francia" title="José Gaspar Rodríguez de Francia">José Gaspar Rodríguez de Francia</a> and <a href="Alfredo_Stroessner" title="Alfredo Stroessner">Alfredo Stroessner</a> used the language to appeal to common Paraguayans, and upon <a href="History_of_Paraguay#Modern_Paraguay" title="History of Paraguay">the advent of Paraguayan democracy</a> in 1992, Guarani was enshrined in the new constitution as a co-equal language along with Spanish.<a href="#cite_note-65">[62]</a> <a href="Jopara" title="Jopara">Jopara</a>, the mixture of Spanish and Guarani, is spoken by an estimated 90% of the population of Paraguay. <a href="Code-switching" title="Code-switching">Code-switching</a> between the two languages takes place on a spectrum where more Spanish is used for official and business-related matters, whereas more Guarani is used in art and in everyday life.<a href="#cite_note-66">[63]</a>

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Parthia">Parthia</h3></div>

Instances of language shift appear to have occurred twice in the history of the <a href="Parthian_Empire" title="Parthian Empire">Parthian Empire</a>: once before its foundation, when the <a href="Parni" title="Parni">Parni</a> invaded <a href="Parthia" title="Parthia">Parthia</a>, eventually losing their <a href="Eastern_Iranian_languages" title="Eastern Iranian languages">Eastern Middle Iranian language</a> and adopting <a href="Parthian_language" title="Parthian language">Parthian</a> instead;<a href="#cite_note-67">[64]</a><a href="#cite_note-68">[65]</a> secondly, after the fall of the Parthian Empire, Parthian speakers shifted to <a href="Middle_Persian" title="Middle Persian">Middle Persian</a> or <a href="Classical_Armenian" title="Classical Armenian">Armenian</a>.<a href="#cite_note-69">[66]</a><a href="#cite_note-70">[67]</a>

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Philippines">Philippines</h3></div>

In the <a href="Philippines" title="Philippines">Philippines</a>, <a href="Spanish_language_in_the_Philippines" title="Spanish language in the Philippines">Spanish</a>-speaking families have gradually switched over to <a href="Tagalog_language" title="Tagalog language">Tagalog</a> or <a href="American_English" title="American English">English</a> since the end of <a href="World_War_II" title="World War II">World War II</a>, so Spanish has ceased to be a practical everyday language in the country and is on the verge of <a href="Language_death" title="Language death">extinction</a>;<a href="#cite_note-71">[68]</a> those Filipino families of Spanish descent who do speak Spanish speak it as a foreign language.

Another example would be the gradual death of the <a href="Kinaray-a" class="mw-redirect" title="Kinaray-a">Kinaray-a</a> language of Panay as many native speakers especially in the province of <a href="Iloilo" title="Iloilo">Iloilo</a> are switching to <a href="Hiligaynon_language" title="Hiligaynon language">Hiligaynon</a> or mixing the two languages together. <a href="Kinaray-a" class="mw-redirect" title="Kinaray-a">Kinaray-a</a> was once spoken in the towns outside the vicinity of <a href="Ilo%C3%ADlo_City" class="mw-redirect" title="Iloílo City">Iloílo City</a>, while <a href="Hiligaynon_language" title="Hiligaynon language">Hiligaynon</a> was limited to only the eastern coasts and the city proper. However, due to media and other factors such as urbanization, many younger speakers have switched from <a href="Kinaray-a" class="mw-redirect" title="Kinaray-a">Kinaray-a</a> to <a href="Hiligaynon_language" title="Hiligaynon language">Hiligaynon</a>, especially in the towns of <a href="Cabatuan%2C_Iloilo" title="Cabatuan, Iloilo">Cabatuan</a>, <a href="Santa_Barbara%2C_Iloilo" title="Santa Barbara, Iloilo">Santa Barbara</a>, <a href="Calinog" title="Calinog">Calinog</a>, <a href="Miagao" title="Miagao">Miagao</a>, <a href="Passi_City" class="mw-redirect" title="Passi City">Passi City</a>, <a href="Guimbal" title="Guimbal">Guimbal</a>, <a href="Tigbauan" title="Tigbauan">Tigbauan</a>, <a href="Tubungan" title="Tubungan">Tubungan</a>, etc. Many towns, especially <a href="Janiuay" title="Janiuay">Janiuay</a>, <a href="Lambunao" title="Lambunao">Lambunao</a>, and <a href="San_Joaquin%2C_Iloilo" title="San Joaquin, Iloilo">San Joaquin</a> still have a sizeable <a href="Kinaray-a" class="mw-redirect" title="Kinaray-a">Kinaray-a</a>-speaking population, with the standard accent being similar to that spoken in the predominantly <a href="Karay-a_language" title="Karay-a language">Karay-a</a> province of <a href="Antique_(province)" title="Antique (province)">Antique</a>. Even in the province of <a href="Antique_(province)" title="Antique (province)">Antique</a>, "Hiligaynonization" is an issue to be confronted as the province, especially the capital town of <a href="San_Jos%C3%A9_de_Buenavista" class="mw-redirect" title="San José de Buenavista">San José de Buenavista</a>, undergoes urbanisation. Many investors from <a href="Ilo%C3%ADlo_City" class="mw-redirect" title="Iloílo City">Iloílo City</a> bring with them <a href="Hiligaynon_language" title="Hiligaynon language">Hiligaynon</a>-speaking workers who are reluctant to learn the local language.

One of the problems of <a href="Kinaray-a" class="mw-redirect" title="Kinaray-a">Kinaray-a</a> is its written form, as its unique "schwa sound" is difficult to represent in orthography. As time goes by, <a href="Kinaray-a" class="mw-redirect" title="Kinaray-a">Kinaray-a</a> has disappeared in many areas it was once spoken especially in the island of Mindoro and only remnants of the past remain in such towns as <a href="Pinamalayan" title="Pinamalayan">Pinamalayan</a>, <a href="Bansud" title="Bansud">Bansud</a>, <a href="Gloria%2C_Oriental_Mindoro" title="Gloria, Oriental Mindoro">Gloria</a>, <a href="Bongabong" title="Bongabong">Bongabong</a>, <a href="Roxas%2C_Oriental_Mindoro" title="Roxas, Oriental Mindoro">Roxas</a>, <a href="Mansalay" title="Mansalay">Mansalay</a>, and <a href="Bulalacao" title="Bulalacao">Bulalacao</a> in Oriental Mindoro and <a href="Sablayan" title="Sablayan">Sablayan</a>, <a href="Calintaan" title="Calintaan">Calintaan</a>, <a href="San_Jose%2C_Occidental_Mindoro" title="San Jose, Occidental Mindoro">San Jose</a>, and <a href="Magsaysay%2C_Occidental_Mindoro" title="Magsaysay, Occidental Mindoro">Magsaysay</a> in <a href="Occidental_Mindoro" title="Occidental Mindoro">Occidental Mindoro</a>, as <a href="Tagalog_language" title="Tagalog language">Tagalog</a> has become the standard and dominantly recognised official language of these areas.

<a href="Palawan" title="Palawan">Palawan</a> has 52 local languages and dialects. Due to this diversity, internal migration and mass media, Tagalog has effectively taken over as the lingua franca on the island. Same case what happened to <a href="Mindanao" title="Mindanao">Mindanao</a>, it has many native languages and dialects but due to internal migration which started during Spanish era until to this day from people of <a href="Visayas" title="Visayas">Visayas</a> and <a href="Visayan_languages" class="mw-redirect" title="Visayan languages">Visayan languages</a> suddenly became the widely spoken languages in the island and some of the local languages are getting influenced and slowly losing its original form.

In <a href="Luzon" title="Luzon">Luzon</a>, the provinces of <a href="Camarines_Norte" title="Camarines Norte">Camarines Norte</a>, <a href="Camarines_Sur" title="Camarines Sur">Camarines Sur</a>, and <a href="Pampanga" title="Pampanga">Pampanga</a> have seen a shift to <a href="Tagalog_language" title="Tagalog language">Tagalog</a>,<a href="#cite_note-guerrerodelapaz-72">[69]</a><a href="#cite_note-language-and-society_Ariel-49-61-73">[70]</a> this is because of proximity of the provinces to the native Tagalog-speaking provinces and migration from those. Other Central Luzon areas experience the same situation, like north <a href="Nueva_Ecija" title="Nueva Ecija">Nueva Ecija</a> where the dominant native language is <a href="Ilocano_language" title="Ilocano language">Ilocano</a> shifted to Tagalog (many of those who speak Ilocano speak it as second language) and <a href="Zambales" title="Zambales">Zambales</a>, there os a shift from Sambal to Ilocano and/or Tagalog.<a href="#cite_note-Indúng_Kapampangan-74">[71]</a> Similarly, younger generations in <a href="Davao_City" title="Davao City">Davao City</a> are increasingly shifting from <a href="Cebuano_language" title="Cebuano language">Cebuano</a> to Tagalog as their primary language.<a href="#cite_note-75">[72]</a>

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Romania">Romania</h3></div>

<div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="Romanianization" title="Romanianization">Romanianization</a></div>

The localized version of Latin emerged from the interaction of indigenous people and the Roman state over a long stretch of time — including a long time after the Roman army withdrew from to the southern shore of the Danube in 271.

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Russia">Russia</h3></div>

<div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="Russification" title="Russification">Russification</a></div>

Since the rule of <a href="Catherine_the_Great" title="Catherine the Great">Catherine II</a>, the Russian government has been making continuous efforts at <a href="Russification" title="Russification">Russification</a> of its numerous subjects.

Nowadays, there is a persistent drop in percentage of speakers of languages other than Russian.

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Singapore">Singapore</h3></div>

<div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="Languages_of_Singapore" title="Languages of Singapore">Languages of Singapore</a></div>

After Singapore's <a href="Independence" title="Independence">independence</a> in 1965, there was a general language shift in the country's interracial lingua franca from <a href="Malay_language" title="Malay language">Malay</a> to English, which was chosen as the first language for the country. Among the <a href="Chinese_Singaporeans" title="Chinese Singaporeans">Chinese community in Singapore</a>, there was a language shift from the various dialects of Chinese to English and <a href="Mandarin_Chinese" title="Mandarin Chinese">Mandarin Chinese</a>. Until the 1980s, <a href="Singaporean_Hokkien" title="Singaporean Hokkien">Singaporean Hokkien</a> was the lingua franca of <a href="Chinese_Singaporean" class="mw-redirect" title="Chinese Singaporean">Chinese community in Singapore</a>, which has since been replaced with English and Mandarin today. There has been a general <a href="Language_attrition" title="Language attrition">language attrition</a> in the use of Chinese other than Mandarin Chinese, especially amongst the younger segments of the Singaporean population.

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Spain">Spain</h3></div>

<div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="Languages_of_Spain" title="Languages of Spain">Languages of Spain</a> and <a href="Valencian_linguistic_conflict" title="Valencian linguistic conflict">Valencian linguistic conflict</a></div>

The progressive dominion exerted by the <a href="Kingdom_of_Castile" title="Kingdom of Castile">Kingdom of Castile</a> over Spain in as much as it gained political power <a href="Reconquista" title="Reconquista">throughout centuries</a>, contributed to the expansion of <a href="Spanish_language" title="Spanish language">its language</a> at the expenses of the rest. The accession of the Castilian <a href="House_of_Trastamara" class="mw-redirect" title="House of Trastamara">House of Trastamara</a> to the <a href="Crown_of_Aragon" title="Crown of Aragon">Crown of Aragon</a> by the mid-15th century saw the gradual displacement of the royal languages of the <a href="Crown_of_Aragon" title="Crown of Aragon">Crown of Aragon</a>, <a href="Navarro-Aragonese" title="Navarro-Aragonese">Aragonese</a> and <a href="Catalan_language" title="Catalan language">Catalan</a>, despite the prolific Valencian literature in Catalan in this period. Nebrija's Gramatica castellana (1492), sponsored by the new Spanish monarch <a href="Ferdinand_II_of_Aragon" title="Ferdinand II of Aragon">Ferdinand II of Aragon</a>, was meant to help expand <a href="Castilian_Spanish" title="Castilian Spanish">Castilian</a>, "the companion of the Empire". As the Crown of Castile expanded, its different governmental officials at different levels required their subjects to use or understand Castilian and sideline other vulgar languages, or vernaculars. It often meant the use of interpreters in lawsuits, which could tilt the outcome of the case, e.g. the <a href="Basque_witch_trials" title="Basque witch trials">Basque witch trials</a>, and the increased use of Castilian in assemblies and decision-making bodies, and documents, despite not being the commonly understood language in a number of areas, like most of the <a href="Southern_Basque_Country" title="Southern Basque Country">Basque districts</a> (<a href="Kingdom_of_Navarre" title="Kingdom of Navarre">Navarre</a>, <a href="%C3%81lava" title="Álava">Álava</a>, etc.), Catalonia, Galicia, Asturias, parts of Aragon, etc.

As Aragonese retreated to the sub-Pyrenean valleys, <a href="Andalusian_Arabic" class="mw-redirect" title="Andalusian Arabic">Arabic</a> vanished by the early 17th century, when forced cultural assimilation of the <a href="Moriscos" class="mw-redirect" title="Moriscos">Moriscos</a> was coupled with expulsion (completed in 1614). The arrival of the Bourbons (1700) intensified the centralization of governmental structures and the imposition of Castilian as the only language for official purposes, replacing in 1716 Catalan as the language of Justice Administration in the relevant territories (<a href="Nueva_Planta_Decrees" class="mw-redirect" title="Nueva Planta Decrees">Nueva Planta Decrees</a>). Unlike <a href="Catalan_language" title="Catalan language">Catalan</a>, <a href="Basque_language" title="Basque language">Basque</a> was never a language written on official documents, but was equally affected. It lost ground to Castilian in all its buffer geographic areas, as well as main institutions as a communication language, after a number of decrees and orders established Castilian as "the national language of the Empire" during <a href="Charles_III_of_Spain" title="Charles III of Spain">Charles III</a>'s reign; printing in languages other than Spanish was forbidden (1766), and Castilian was the only language taught in school (1768).

The <a href="Peninsular_War" title="Peninsular War">Peninsular War</a> was followed by the centralization of Spain (Constitutions of 1812, 1837, 1845, 1856, etc.), with only the Basque districts keeping a <a href="End_of_Basque_home_rule_in_Spain" title="End of Basque home rule in Spain">separate status until 1876</a>. Compulsory education in 1856 made the use of Castilian (Spanish) mandatory, as well as discouraging and forbidding the use of other languages in some social and institutional settings. <a href="Francoist_Spain" title="Francoist Spain">Franco and his nationalist dictatorship</a> imposed Spanish as the only valid language for any formal social interaction (1937). By the early 21st century, Spanish was the overwhelmingly dominant language in Spain, with Basque, Catalan, and <a href="Galician_language" title="Galician language">Galician</a> surviving and developing in their respective regions with different levels of recognition since 1980. Other minorized languages (<a href="Asturian_language" title="Asturian language">Asturian</a>, Aragonese) have also seen some recognition in the early 21st century. Catalan, sharing with Basque a strong link between language and identity (especially in Catalonia), enjoys a fairly sound status, however many Catalan speakers think that their language is still in danger, and this perception has brought about a number of campaigns to promote the use of Catalan, for instance <a href="Mantinc_el_catal%C3%A0" title="Mantinc el català">Mantinc el català</a>.<a href="#cite_note-:0-76">[73]</a><a href="#cite_note-:5-77">[74]</a> Basque competence has risen during the last decades, but daily use has not risen accordingly. The Endangered Languages Project has classified Asturian as being at risk and Aragonese as endangered.

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Taiwan">Taiwan</h3></div>

<div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="Languages_of_Taiwan" title="Languages of Taiwan">Languages of Taiwan</a></div>

<a href="Taiwanese_aborigines" class="mw-redirect" title="Taiwanese aborigines">Taiwanese aborigines</a> used only <a href="Austronesian_languages" title="Austronesian languages">Austronesian languages</a> before other ethnic groups conquered Taiwan. After widespread migration of <a href="Han_people" class="mw-redirect" title="Han people">Han peoples</a> from the 17th to the 19th century, many <a href="Taiwanese_Plains_Aborigines" class="mw-redirect" title="Taiwanese Plains Aborigines">Taiwanese Plains Aborigines</a> became <a href="Sinicization" title="Sinicization">Sinicized</a>, and shifted their language use to other <a href="Sinitic_language" class="mw-redirect" title="Sinitic language">Sinitic</a> tongues, (mainly <a href="Taiwanese_Hokkien" title="Taiwanese Hokkien">Taiwanese Hokkien</a>).<a href="#cite_note-78">[75]</a> Additionally, some <a href="Hakka_people" title="Hakka people">Hakka people</a> (a Han Chinese ethnic subgroup) also shifted from <a href="Hakka_Chinese" title="Hakka Chinese">Hakka Chinese</a> to Hokkien (also called Hoklo). This happened especially in <a href="Yongjing%2C_Changhua" title="Yongjing, Changhua">Yongjing, Changhua</a>, <a href="Xiluo%2C_Yunlin" class="mw-redirect" title="Xiluo, Yunlin">Xiluo, Yunlin</a>, etc. They are called Hoklo-Hakka (<a href="Phak-fa-s%E1%B9%B3" class="mw-redirect" title="Phak-fa-sṳ">Phak-fa-sṳ</a>: Hok-ló-hak, Peh-oē-jī: Hô-ló-kheh, Hanzi: <a href="https://zh.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E7%A6%8F%E4%BD%AC%E5%AE%A2" class="extiw external" title="zh:福佬客">福佬客</a>).<a href="#cite_note-ang2-79">[76]</a><a href="#cite_note-80">[77]</a><a href="#cite_note-81">[78]</a>

When Taiwan was <a href="Taiwan_under_Japanese_rule" title="Taiwan under Japanese rule">under Japanese rule</a>, Japanese became the official language, with the Japanese government promoting Japanese language education. It also led to the creation of <a href="Yilan_Creole_Japanese" title="Yilan Creole Japanese">Yilan Creole Japanese</a>, a mixture of Japanese, <a href="Atayal_language" title="Atayal language">Atayal language</a>, and Hokkien<a href="#cite_note-82">[79]</a> in <a href="Yilan_County%2C_Taiwan" title="Yilan County, Taiwan">Yilan County</a>. In <a href="World_War_II" title="World War II">World War II</a>, under the <a href="Japanification" title="Japanification">Japanification Movement</a>, <a href="Chinese_language" title="Chinese language">Chinese</a> was banned in newspapers and school lectures, and the usage of Japanese at home was encouraged, so many urban people turned to using Japanese. In 1941, 57% of Taiwanese could speak Japanese.<a href="#cite_note-ang2-79">[76]</a><a href="#cite_note-ang1-83">[80]</a><a href="#cite_note-84">[81]</a>

After the <a href="ROC_government" class="mw-redirect" title="ROC government">ROC government</a> established rule over Taiwan in 1945, it forbade the use of <a href="Japanese_language" title="Japanese language">Japanese</a> in newspapers and schools,<a href="#cite_note-85">[82]</a> and promoted the <a href="Standard_Chinese" title="Standard Chinese">Guoyu</a> movement (Chinese: 國語運動) to popularize <a href="Standard_Mandarin" class="mw-redirect" title="Standard Mandarin">Standard Mandarin</a>, often through coercive means.<a href="#cite_note-ntlm-86">[83]</a> In the primary <a href="Education_in_Taiwan" title="Education in Taiwan">education system</a>, people using local languages would be fined or forced to wear a <a href="Dialect_card" title="Dialect card">dialect card</a>. In the mass media, local languages were also discouraged or banned, and some books on the <a href="Romanization" title="Romanization">romanization</a> of local languages (e.g. Bibles, lyrics books, <a href="Pe%CC%8Dh-%C5%8De-j%C4%AB" title="Pe̍h-ōe-jī">Peh-ōe-jī</a>) were banned. In 1975, The Radio and Television Act (Chinese: 廣播電視法) was adopted, restricting the usage of local languages on the radio or TV.<a href="#cite_note-87">[84]</a> In 1985, after the draft of the Language and Script Law (Chinese: 語文法) was released by the Ministry of Education, it received considerable opposition because it banned the use of Taiwanese unofficial languages in the public domain.<a href="#cite_note-ntlm-86">[83]</a><a href="#cite_note-88">[85]</a> In response, some Hakka groups demonstrated to <a href="Language_revitalization" title="Language revitalization">save their language</a>.<a href="#cite_note-89">[86]</a> After 1987 when <a href="Martial_law_in_Taiwan#Lifting_of_martial_law" title="Martial law in Taiwan">martial law was lifted</a>, the Guoyu movement ceased.<a href="#cite_note-ang2-79">[76]</a><a href="#cite_note-ang1-83">[80]</a><a href="#cite_note-ntlm-86">[83]</a>

The shift towards monolingual Mandarin was more pronounced among Hakka-speaking communities, attributed to Hakka's low social prestige. Before the KMT took over the island from Japan, the Hakka were expected to learn both Hokkien and Japanese. However, the lack of a significant Japanese-speaking base for gaining and then retaining Japanese fluency meant that most Hakka learned only Hokkien. When the <a href="Chinese_Nationalist_Party_retreat_to_Taiwan" class="mw-redirect" title="Chinese Nationalist Party retreat to Taiwan">KMT fled to Taiwan from mainland China</a>, most mainlanders settled mainly in northern Taiwan, close to Hakka-speaking areas, thus spurring a linguistic shift from Hokkien to Mandarin within the Taipei area. As the bulk of economic activity centered around patronage networks revolving around Mandarin-speaking KMT membership, most of the Hakka became Mandarin monolinguals, due to a shift in social mobility formerly centered around Hokkien. Elsewhere, although the Hokkien speech-community shrank within the population, most Hokkien-speaking households have retained fluency in Hokkien, helped by the liberalization of Taiwanese politics and the end of martial law.

Nevertheless, <a href="Taiwanese_Mandarin" title="Taiwanese Mandarin">Taiwanese Mandarin</a> has become the most common language in Taiwan today, and the most common home language of Taiwanese youth.<a href="#cite_note-DGBAS-90">[87]</a> In the population census of 2010, Mandarin is the most common home language in the <a href="Taipei_metropolitan_area" class="mw-redirect" title="Taipei metropolitan area">Taipei metropolitan area</a>, <a href="Taoyuan_City" class="mw-redirect" title="Taoyuan City">Taoyuan</a>, <a href="Matsu_Islands" title="Matsu Islands">Matsu</a>, <a href="Indigenous_Area_(Taiwan)" title="Indigenous Area (Taiwan)">aboriginal areas</a>, some Hakka-majority areas, as well as some urban areas of <a href="Taichung" title="Taichung">Taichung</a> and <a href="Kaohsiung" title="Kaohsiung">Kaohsiung</a>.<a href="#cite_note-DGBAS-90">[87]</a> Conversely, the ability of Taiwanese to speak ethnic languages is strikingly on the decline.<a href="#cite_note-ang2-79">[76]</a>

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Turkey">Turkey</h3></div>

<div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="Languages_of_Turkey" title="Languages of Turkey">Languages of Turkey</a></div>

Studies have suggested an <a href="Elite" title="Elite">elite</a> cultural dominance-driven linguistic replacement model to explain the adoption of <a href="Turkish_language" title="Turkish language">Turkish</a> by <a href="Ancient_Anatolians" class="mw-redirect" title="Ancient Anatolians">Anatolian indigenous inhabitants</a>.<a href="#cite_note-Yardumian_et_al-91">[88]</a><a href="#cnote_k">[k]</a><a href="#cite_note-eurostudy-92">[89]</a>

During the presidency of <a href="Mustafa_Kemal_Atat%C3%BCrk" title="Mustafa Kemal Atatürk">Mustafa Kemal Atatürk</a>, policy of turkification was heavily promoting thus leading to languages of <a href="Muhacir" title="Muhacir">Muhacirs</a> disappearing.

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="United_Kingdom">United Kingdom</h3></div>

The island of Great Britain, located on the western fringes of Northwestern Europe, has experienced a series of successive language changes and developments in the course of several invasions. <a href="Celtic_languages" title="Celtic languages">Celtic languages</a> predominated before the <a href="Roman_Britain" title="Roman Britain">arrival of the Romans</a> in 43 CE imposed a <a href="Vulgar_Latin" title="Vulgar Latin">Latinate</a> superstructure. <a href="Old_English" title="Old English">Anglo-Saxon dialects</a> then <a href="Celtic_language_decline_in_England" title="Celtic language decline in England">swamped much of the Romano-British speech</a> from the 5th century, only to be challenged from the 9th century by <a href="Scandinavian_influence_in_English" class="mw-redirect" title="Scandinavian influence in English">the influx</a> of <a href="Old_Norse" title="Old Norse">Old Norse</a> dialects in much of England and in parts of Scotland. Following the <a href="Norman_Conquest" title="Norman Conquest">Norman invasion</a> of the 11th century, <a href="Anglo-Norman_language" title="Anglo-Norman language">Norman-French</a> became the prestige tongue, with <a href="Middle_English" title="Middle English">Middle English</a> re-asserting the <a href="Germanic_languages" title="Germanic languages">Germanic linguistic heritage</a> gradually in the course of the later Middle Ages.

<dl><dt>Cornwall</dt></dl>

<div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="Cornish_language#Decline_of_Cornish_speakers_1050_to_1800" title="Cornish language">Cornish language § Decline of Cornish speakers 1050 to 1800</a></div>

<dl><dt>Scottish Gaelic</dt></dl>

<div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="Scottish_Gaelic#Status" title="Scottish Gaelic">Scottish Gaelic § Status</a></div>

Gaelic has long suffered from its lack of use in educational and administrative contexts, and was long suppressed by Scottish and then British authorities.<a href="#cite_note-93">[90]</a> The shift from Gaelic to <a href="Scots_language" title="Scots language">Scots</a> and <a href="Scottish_English" title="Scottish English">Scottish English</a> has been ongoing since about 1200 CE; Gaelic has gone from being the dominant language in almost all areas of present-day Scotland to an <a href="Endangered_language" title="Endangered language">endangered language</a> spoken by only about 1% of the population.<a href="#cite_note-94">[91]</a>

With the advent of <a href="History_of_Scottish_devolution" class="mw-redirect" title="History of Scottish devolution">Scottish devolution</a>, however, Scottish Gaelic has begun to receive greater attention, and it achieved official recognition when the <a href="Scottish_Parliament" title="Scottish Parliament">Scottish Parliament</a> enacted the <a href="Gaelic_Language_(Scotland)_Act_2005" title="Gaelic Language (Scotland) Act 2005">Gaelic Language (Scotland) Act</a> on 21 April 2005. <a href="Gaelic_medium_education_in_Scotland" class="mw-redirect" title="Gaelic medium education in Scotland">Gaelic-medium education in Scotland</a> now enrolls more than 2000 students a year. Nevertheless, Scottish Gaelic is a <a href="Minority_language" title="Minority language">minority language</a> in most of the traditional <a href="G%C3%A0idhealtachd" title="Gàidhealtachd">Gàidhealtachd</a>.

<dl><dt>London</dt></dl>

Predictions envisage the replacement of <a href="Cockney#Cockney_speech" title="Cockney">Cockney English</a> (traditionally spoken by working-class <a href="London" title="London">Londoners</a>) by <a href="Multicultural_London_English" title="Multicultural London English">Multicultural London English</a> (MLE) or "Jafaican" by about 2040 as <a href="Cockney" title="Cockney">Cockneys</a> move out of <a href="London" title="London">London</a>. Researchers theorise that the new language emerged as new migrants spoke their own forms of English such as <a href="Nigerian_English" title="Nigerian English">Nigerian</a> and <a href="Pakistani_English" title="Pakistani English">Pakistani</a> English, and that it contains elements from <a href="Interlanguage" title="Interlanguage">"learners' varieties"</a> as migrants learn English as a second language.<a href="#cite_note-95">[92]</a><a href="#cite_note-96">[93]</a>

<dl><dt>Wales</dt></dl>

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="United_States">United States</h3></div>

<div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="Languages_of_the_United_States" title="Languages of the United States">Languages of the United States</a></div>

Although English has been the majority language in the United States since independence in 1776, <a href="Indigenous_languages_of_the_Americas#Northern_America" title="Indigenous languages of the Americas">hundreds of aboriginal languages</a> were spoken before <a href="United_States#European_settlements" title="United States">western European settlement</a>. <a href="French_language_in_the_United_States" title="French language in the United States">French</a> was once the main language in Louisiana, Missouri, and areas along the border with <a href="Quebec" title="Quebec">Quebec</a>, but the speaking has dwindled after new waves of migration and the rise of English as a <a href="Lingua_franca" title="Lingua franca">lingua franca</a>. <a href="Californio" class="mw-redirect" title="Californio">Californio</a> Spanish became a minority language during the <a href="California_Gold_Rush" class="mw-redirect" title="California Gold Rush">California Gold Rush</a>; it has largely been overtaken by English and <a href="Mexican_Spanish" title="Mexican Spanish">Mexican Spanish</a>, surviving mainly as a <a href="Prestige_dialect" class="mw-redirect" title="Prestige dialect">prestige dialect</a> in Northern and Central California. <a href="German_language_in_the_United_States" title="German language in the United States">German</a> was once the main language in large areas of the <a href="Great_Plains" title="Great Plains">Great Plains</a> and <a href="Pennsylvania" title="Pennsylvania">Pennsylvania</a>, but it was suppressed by <a href="Anti-German_sentiment" title="Anti-German sentiment">anti-German sentiment</a> during the <a href="First_World_War" class="mw-redirect" title="First World War">First World War</a>. But contemporary English is widely used in the United States, and so many years of development have created the growth of English in the region.<a href="#cite_note-97">[94]</a>

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Vietnam">Vietnam</h3></div>

Since the <a href="Fall_of_Saigon" title="Fall of Saigon">fall of Saigon</a> at the end of the <a href="Vietnam_War" title="Vietnam War">Vietnam War</a> in 1975, <a href="Vietnamese_French_(dialect)" class="mw-redirect" title="Vietnamese French (dialect)">French</a> has declined heavily in Vietnam from being a government language and primary language of education in <a href="South_Vietnam" title="South Vietnam">South Vietnam</a> to being a minority language limited to the elite classes and elderly population. Today, <a href="French_language_in_Vietnam" title="French language in Vietnam">French is spoken</a> fluently by less than 1% of the Vietnamese population. The language shift from French to <a href="Vietnamese_language" title="Vietnamese language">Vietnamese</a> occurred earlier in the north due to <a href="Viet_Minh" title="Viet Minh">Viet Minh</a> and later communist policies enforcing Vietnamese as the language of politics and education.<a href="#cite_note-98">[95]</a> However, since the late 1990s, there has been a minor revival of French in Vietnam.<a href="#cite_note-99">[96]</a>

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Reversing">Reversing</h2></div>

<div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="Language_revitalization" title="Language revitalization">Language revitalization</a></div>

American linguist <a href="Joshua_Fishman" title="Joshua Fishman">Joshua Fishman</a> has proposed a method of <a href="Reversing_language_shift" class="mw-redirect" title="Reversing language shift">reversing language shift</a> which involves assessing the degree to which a particular language is disrupted in order to determine the most appropriate method of revitalising.<a href="#cite_note-100">[97]</a>

<ul><li><a href="Germanic_substrate_hypothesis" title="Germanic substrate hypothesis">Germanic substrate hypothesis</a></li>

<li><a href="Linguistic_imperialism" title="Linguistic imperialism">Linguistic imperialism</a></li>

<li><a href="Second_language" title="Second language">Second language</a></li>

<li><a href="Stratum_(linguistics)" title="Stratum (linguistics)">Stratum (linguistics)</a></li>

<li><a href="Transitional_bilingualism" title="Transitional bilingualism">Transitional bilingualism</a></li>

<li><a href="World_Englishes" title="World Englishes">World Englishes</a></li></ul>

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<div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Notes">Notes</h2></div>

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<li id="cite_note-10"><a href="#cite_ref-10">^</a> Michael Witzel: Ehret, Ch., 1988. "Language Change and the Material Correlates of Language and Ethnic

Shift", Antiquity, 62: 564–74; derived from Africa, cf. Diakonoff 1985.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWitzel2005347-8">[8]</a>

</li>

<li id="cite_note-12"><a href="#cite_ref-12">^</a> Compare the process of <a href="Sanskritization" class="mw-redirect" title="Sanskritization">Sanskritization</a> in India.

</li>

<li id="cite_note-17"><a href="#cite_ref-17">^</a> Another example Anthony gives of how an open social system can encourage recruitment and language shift are the Pathans in western Afghanistan. Traditionally, status depended on agricultural surpluses and landownership. The neighbouring Baluch, outnumbered by the Pathans, were pastoral herders, and had a hierarchical political system. Pathans who lost their land, could take refuge among the Baluch. As Anthony notes, "chronic tribal warfare might generally favor pastoralism over sedentary economics as herds can be defended by moving them, whereas agricultural fields are an immobile target."<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEAnthony2007118-119-16">[14]</a>

</li>

</ol></div></div>

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="References">References</h2></div>

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</style><cite id="CITEREFKandlerSteele2017" class="citation journal cs1">Kandler, Anne; Steele, James (2017-05-09). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC5441700">"Modeling language shift"</a>. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences. 114 (19): 4851–4853. <a href="Bibcode_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Bibcode (identifier)">Bibcode</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2017PNAS..114.4851K">2017PNAS..114.4851K</a>. <a href="Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1073%2Fpnas.1703509114">10.1073/pnas.1703509114</a>. <a href="ISSN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/issn/0027-8424">0027-8424</a>. <a href="PMC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMC (identifier)">PMC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC5441700">5441700</a>. <a href="PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/28428340">28428340</a>.</cite>

</li>

<li id="cite_note-2"><a href="#cite_ref-2">^</a> <cite id="CITEREFGrenoble2021" class="citation web cs1">Grenoble, Lenore A. (2021-03-25). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://oxfordre.com/linguistics/view/10.1093/acrefore/9780199384655.001.0001/acrefore-9780199384655-e-347">"Language Shift"</a>. Oxford Research Encyclopedia of Linguistics. <a href="Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1093%2Facrefore%2F9780199384655.013.347">10.1093/acrefore/9780199384655.013.347</a>. <a href="ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <bdi>978-0-19-938465-5</bdi>. Retrieved 2022-06-06.</cite>

</li>

<li id="cite_note-3"><a href="#cite_ref-3">^</a> <cite id="CITEREFGal2008" class="citation book cs1">Gal, Susan (2008-07-14). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.degruyter.com/document/doi/10.1515/9783110132649.1.6.586/html">"Language shift"</a>. Kontaktlinguistik. De Gruyter Mouton. pp. 586–593. <a href="Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1515%2F9783110132649.1.6.586">10.1515/9783110132649.1.6.586</a>. <a href="ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <bdi>978-3-11-019405-0</bdi>.</cite>

</li>

<cite id="CITEREFGrenoble2022" class="citation book cs1 cs1-prop-long-vol"><a href="Lenore_Grenoble" title="Lenore Grenoble">Grenoble, Lenore A.</a> (30 June 2022). "18: Contact and Shift: Colonization and Urbanization in the Arctic". In Mufwene, Salikoko; Escobar, Anna María (eds.). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=i2B2EAAAQBAJ">The Cambridge Handbook of Language Contact</a>. Cambridge Handbooks in Language and Linguistics. Vol. 2: Multilingualism in Population Structure. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. <a href="ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <bdi>9781009115766</bdi>. Retrieved 17 May 2025. <q>There was often strict enforcement of use of the national majority language. [...] Cultural and linguistic assimilation was an open goal.</q></cite>

</li>

<cite id="CITEREFChang-Soo_Cho1953" class="citation book cs1">Chang-Soo Cho (1953). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=MxcLwWDyD_MC">The Correlates of Cultural Assimilation of Two Groups of Issei Women</a>. University of Washington. p. 40. Retrieved 17 May 2025. <q>The importance of a knowledge of language in the process of assimilation can hardly be exaggerated. It is certainly a gate through which the alien can arrive at an understanding of [...] institutions and culture.</q></cite>

</li>

<li id="cite_note-6"><a href="#cite_ref-6">^</a> <cite id="CITEREFJones2004" class="citation book cs1">Jones, Martin (2004). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20160625074051/http://www.oxbowbooks.com/oxbow/traces-of-ancestry.html">Traces of Ancestry</a>. Cambridge. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.oxbowbooks.com/oxbow/traces-of-ancestry.html">the original</a> on 2016-06-25. Retrieved 2013-06-22.</cite><code class="cs1-code">{{cite book}}</code>: CS1 maint: location missing publisher (link)

</li>

<li id="cite_note-7"><a href="#cite_ref-7">^</a> <cite id="CITEREFForsterRenfrew2011" class="citation journal cs1">Forster P, Renfrew C (2011). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.rootsforreal.com/press_en.php">"Mother tongue and Y chromosomes"</a>. Science. 333 (6048): 1390–1391. <a href="Bibcode_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Bibcode (identifier)">Bibcode</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2011Sci...333.1390F">2011Sci...333.1390F</a>. <a href="Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1126%2Fscience.1205331">10.1126/science.1205331</a>. <a href="PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/21903800">21903800</a>. <a href="S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:43916070">43916070</a>.</cite>

</li>

<li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEWitzel2005347-8">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEWitzel2005347_8-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEWitzel2005347_8-1">b</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEWitzel2005347_8-2">c</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEWitzel2005347_8-3">d</a> <a href="#CITEREFWitzel2005">Witzel 2005</a>, p. 347.

</li>

<li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEAnthony2007-9"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEAnthony2007_9-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFAnthony2007">Anthony 2007</a>.

</li>

<li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEAnthony2007117-11"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEAnthony2007117_11-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFAnthony2007">Anthony 2007</a>, p. 117.

</li>

<li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEWitzel200127-13"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEWitzel200127_13-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFWitzel2001">Witzel 2001</a>, p. 27.

</li>

<li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEAnthony2007117-118-14"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEAnthony2007117-118_14-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFAnthony2007">Anthony 2007</a>, p. 117-118.

</li>

<li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEAnthony2007118-15">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEAnthony2007118_15-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEAnthony2007118_15-1">b</a> <a href="#CITEREFAnthony2007">Anthony 2007</a>, p. 118.

</li>

<li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEAnthony2007118-119-16"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEAnthony2007118-119_16-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFAnthony2007">Anthony 2007</a>, p. 118-119.

</li>

<li id="cite_note-:1-18">^ <a href="#cite_ref-:1_18-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-:1_18-1">b</a> <cite id="CITEREFPepinskyAbtahianCohn2022" class="citation journal cs1">Pepinsky, Thomas B.; Abtahian, Maya Ravindranath; Cohn, Abigail C. (2022-03-24). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/full/10.1080/01434632.2022.2055761">"Urbanization, ethnic diversity, and language shift in Indonesia"</a>. Journal of Multilingual and Multicultural Development. 45 (7): 2503–2521. <a href="Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1080%2F01434632.2022.2055761">10.1080/01434632.2022.2055761</a>. <a href="ISSN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/issn/0143-4632">0143-4632</a>.</cite>

</li>

<li id="cite_note-19"><a href="#cite_ref-19">^</a> <cite id="CITEREFBarker1588" class="citation book cs1">Barker, Christopher (1588). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.joh.cam.ac.uk/library/special_collections/early_books/pix/welsh.htm">The Bible in Welsh</a>. London.</cite>

</li>

<li id="cite_note-20"><a href="#cite_ref-20">^</a> Thomas M. Barker, The Slovene Minority of Carinthia (New York: Columbia University Press, 1984).

</li>

<li id="cite_note-21"><a href="#cite_ref-21">^</a> Matjaž Klemenčič and Vladimir Klemenčič, The Endeavors of Carinthian Slovenes for their Ethnic Survival with/against Austrian Governments after World War II (Klagenfurt-Ljubljana-Vienna: Mohorjeva založba/Hermagoras Verlag, 2008).

</li>

<li id="cite_note-22"><a href="#cite_ref-22">^</a> <cite id="CITEREFSmoliczRadzik2004" class="citation journal cs1">Smolicz, Jerzy J.; Radzik, Ryszard (September 2004). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://linkinghub.elsevier.com/retrieve/pii/S0738059303000725">"Belarusian as an endangered language: can the mother tongue of an independent state be made to die?"</a>. International Journal of Educational Development. 24 (5): 511–528. <a href="Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1016%2FS0738-0593%2803%2900072-5">10.1016/S0738-0593(03)00072-5</a>.</cite>

</li>

<li id="cite_note-Census-23">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Census_23-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Census_23-1">b</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Census_23-2">c</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Census_23-3">d</a> <cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.belstat.gov.by/upload-belstat/upload-belstat-pdf/perepis_2009/5.11-0.pdf">"2009 Belarusian Census"</a> (PDF). August 19, 2010. Retrieved July 22, 2022.</cite>

</li>

<li id="cite_note-service-24"><a href="#cite_ref-service_24-0">^</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www2.cfwb.be/franca/services/pg027.htm">"Wallonie - Bruxelles", Le Service de la langue française, 19/05/1997</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20070105023238/http://www2.cfwb.be/franca/services/pg027.htm">Archived</a> 2007-01-05 at the <a href="Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a>

</li>

<li id="cite_note-laval-25"><a href="#cite_ref-laval_25-0">^</a> <cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20090619145722/http://www.ulaval.ca/afi/colloques/colloque2001/actes/textes/tourret.htm">"Université Laval: Accueil"</a>. ulaval.ca. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ulaval.ca/afi/colloques/colloque2001/actes/textes/tourret.htm">the original</a> on 2009-06-19.</cite>

</li>

<li id="cite_note-brio4-26"><a href="#cite_ref-brio4_26-0">^</a> <cite class="citation web cs1 cs1-prop-foreign-lang-source"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20181015023229/http://www.briobrussel.be/assets/andere%20publicaties/btng-rbhc,%2021,%201990,%203-4,%20pp%20383-412.pdf">"Thuis in gescheiden werelden — De migratoire en sociale aspecten van verfransing te Brussel in het midden van de 19e eeuw - BTNG-RBHC, XXI, 1990, 3-4, pp. 383-412, Machteld de Metsenaere, Eerst aanwezend assistent en docent Vrije Universiteit Brussel"</a> (PDF). biobrussel.be (in Dutch). Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.briobrussel.be/assets/andere%20publicaties/btng-rbhc,%2021,%201990,%203-4,%20pp%20383-412.pdf">the original</a> (PDF) on 2018-10-15. Retrieved 2009-01-01.</cite>

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<li id="cite_note-dbnl-27"><a href="#cite_ref-dbnl_27-0">^</a> <cite id="CITEREFJ._Fleerackers,_Chief_of_staff_of_the_Belgian_Minister_for_Dutch_culture_and_Flemish_affairs1973" class="citation web cs1 cs1-prop-foreign-lang-source">J. Fleerackers, Chief of staff of the Belgian Minister for Dutch culture and Flemish affairs (1973). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.dbnl.org/tekst/_han001197301_01/_han001197301_01_0009.htm">"De historische kracht van de Vlaamse beweging in België: de doelstellingen van gister, de verwezenlijkingen vandaag en de culturele aspiraties voor morgen"</a>. Digitale bibliotheek voor Nederlandse Letteren (in Dutch).</cite>

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<li id="cite_note-28"><a href="#cite_ref-28">^</a> <cite class="citation news cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20100805063608/http://www.time.com/time/world/article/0,8599,2008060,00.html">"Protesters Stand Firm on Cantonese Rights"</a>. TIME. 2 August 2010. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.time.com/time/world/article/0,8599,2008060,00.html">the original</a> on August 5, 2010. Retrieved 3 April 2012.</cite>

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<li id="cite_note-29"><a href="#cite_ref-29">^</a> An example of these is Maria Helena de Senna Fernandes: <cite id="CITEREFCrowell,_Todd1999" class="citation magazine cs1">Crowell, Todd (1999-12-24). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20010128202000/http://www.asiaweek.com/asiaweek/magazine/99/1224/sr.macanese.html">"A Proud People"</a>. <a href="Asia_Week" class="mw-redirect" title="Asia Week">Asia Week</a>. Archived from the original on 2001-01-28. <q>Maria Helena de Senna Fernandes, Julie's 33-year-old niece, is perhaps more typical of the younger generation. Her father was Macanese and her mother Chinese. "I grew up more in contact with the Chinese than the Portuguese community," she says. Indeed, a major family decision was whether to send Fernandes, above, to a Portuguese-speaking school or an English one; her parents decided that the latter would give her more advantages. Fernandes didn't even learn to speak Portuguese until she was an adult and went to work for the government, where she is currently deputy director of the Macau Tourist Office. She then took private lessons to bring her Portuguese up to speed, though she probably finds her fluency in Mandarin and Cantonese more useful. The Macanese dialect? "I don't feel the urge to learn patúa," she says. Maria's husband is Chinese, which means that her children will be even further removed from their Portuguese ancestry. That doesn't bother her. "A lot of people look on me as Chinese; I blend in." For her, she says, the handover means business as usual.</q></cite><code class="cs1-code">{{cite magazine}}</code>: CS1 maint: bot: original URL status unknown (link)

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<li id="cite_note-30"><a href="#cite_ref-30">^</a> <cite id="CITEREFAllen2020" class="citation book cs1"><a href="James_Peter_Allen" title="James Peter Allen">Allen, James P.</a> (November 2020). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=DerDEAAAQBAJ">Coptic: A Grammar of Its Six Major Dialects</a>. Eisenbrauns. <a href="ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <bdi>978-1-64602-064-5</bdi>.</cite>

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<li id="cite_note-31"><a href="#cite_ref-31">^</a> <cite id="CITEREFEstella_S._PoloniYamama_NaciriRute_BuchoRégine_Niba2009" class="citation journal cs1">Estella S. Poloni; Yamama Naciri; Rute Bucho; Régine Niba; Barbara Kervaire; Laurent Excoffier; André Langaney; Alicia Sanchez-Mazas (November 2009). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive-ouverte.unige.ch/unige:2714">"Genetic Evidence for Complexity in Ethnic Differentiation and History in East Africa"</a>. Annals of Human Genetics. 73 (6): 582–600. <a href="Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1111%2Fj.1469-1809.2009.00541.x">10.1111/j.1469-1809.2009.00541.x</a>. <a href="PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/19706029">19706029</a>. <a href="S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:2488794">2488794</a>.</cite>

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<li id="cite_note-32"><a href="#cite_ref-32">^</a> <cite id="CITEREFMarten2009" class="citation web cs1">Marten, Peter (31 July 2009). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://finland.fi/life-society/a-photographic-leap-through-time/">"A photographic leap through time in the Finnish capital"</a>. thisisFINLAND. Finland Promotion Board. <a href="Ministry_for_Foreign_Affairs_of_Finland" class="mw-redirect" title="Ministry for Foreign Affairs of Finland">Ministry for Foreign Affairs of Finland</a>. Retrieved 18 June 2024. <q>At the time when Inha was shooting this series [1908–1909], Finnish speakers already made up more than 50 percent of the population of once predominately Swedish-speaking Helsinki. [...] Today about 6 percent of Helsinki speaks Swedish as its first language [...]</q></cite>

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<li id="cite_note-33"><a href="#cite_ref-33">^</a> Veltman & Denis (1989) Le declin du dialecte alsacien.

</li>

<li id="cite_note-hugo-34">^ <a href="#cite_ref-hugo_34-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-hugo_34-1">b</a> <a href="#cite_ref-hugo_34-2">c</a> <a href="#cite_ref-hugo_34-3">d</a> <cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20070616055025/http://www.multilingual-matters.net/jmmd/023/0022/jmmd0230022.pdf">"Dutch/Flemish in the north of France"</a> (PDF). 13 April 2023. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.multilingual-matters.net/jmmd/023/0022/jmmd0230022.pdf">the original</a> (PDF) on 16 June 2007. Retrieved 1 January 2009.</cite>, by Hugo Ryckeboer. University of Ghent.

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<li id="cite_note-35"><a href="#cite_ref-35">^</a> <cite id="CITEREFRaynaudon-Kerzerho" class="citation web cs1">Raynaudon-Kerzerho, Maiwenn. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://bretons-mag.com/blog/102-fanch-broudic-le-breton-a-perdu-80-de-locuteurs-en-60-ans">"Fañch Broudic : "Le breton a perdu 80 % de locuteurs en 60 ans.""</a>. Retrieved 1 November 2015.</cite>

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<li id="cite_note-36"><a href="#cite_ref-36">^</a> <cite id="CITEREFHutchinsonNí_Ríordáin2010" class="citation book cs1">Hutchinson, Wesley; Ní Ríordáin, Clíona (2010). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=-SXXZwhc5OcC">Language issues: Ireland, France and Spain</a>. Peter Lang. p. 176. <a href="ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <bdi>9789052016498</bdi>.</cite>

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<li id="cite_note-37"><a href="#cite_ref-37">^</a> <cite class="citation news cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20151030004435/http://www.franceinfo.fr/actu/politique/article/le-senat-rejette-le-projet-de-loi-de-ratification-de-la-charte-europeenne-des-langues-regionales-741405">"Le Sénat dit non à la Charte européenne des langues régionales"</a>. franceinfo. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.franceinfo.fr/actu/politique/article/le-senat-rejette-le-projet-de-loi-de-ratification-de-la-charte-europeenne-des-langues-regionales-741405">the original</a> on 30 October 2015. Retrieved 1 November 2015.</cite>

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<li id="cite_note-38"><a href="#cite_ref-38">^</a> <cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.unesco.org/languages-atlas/en/atlasmap/language-id-340.html">"UNESCO Atlas of the World's Languages in danger"</a>.</cite>

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<li id="cite_note-cif-39"><a href="#cite_ref-cif_39-0">^</a> <cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.uoc.edu/euromosaic/web/homean/index1.html">"Corsican in France"</a>. Euromosaic. Retrieved 2008-06-13.</cite> To access the data, click on List by languages, Corsican, Corsican in France, then scroll to Geographical and language background.

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<li id="cite_note-Mittelniederdeutsch_und_heutiges_Pl-40">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Mittelniederdeutsch_und_heutiges_Pl_40-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Mittelniederdeutsch_und_heutiges_Pl_40-1">b</a> <cite id="CITEREFBock1948" class="citation book cs1">Bock, Karl N. (1948). Mittelniederdeutsch und heutiges Plattdeutsch im ehemaligen Dänischen Herzogtum Schleswig. Studien zur Beleuchtung des Sprachwechsels in Angeln und Mittelschleswig. Det Kgl. Danske Videnskabernes Selskab.</cite>

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<li id="cite_note-41"><a href="#cite_ref-41">^</a> <cite id="CITEREFHinrichsen1984" class="citation book cs1">Hinrichsen, Manfred (1984). Die Entwicklung der Sprachverhältnisse im Landesteil Schleswig. Wachholtz.</cite>

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<li id="cite_note-42"><a href="#cite_ref-42">^</a> <cite id="CITEREFHawkeyLanger2016" class="citation book cs1">Hawkey, James; Langer, Nils (2016). Language Policy in the Long Nineteenth Century, Catalonia and Schleswig.</cite>

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<li id="cite_note-43"><a href="#cite_ref-43">^</a> <cite id="CITEREFLaitin1993" class="citation journal cs1">Laitin, David D. (1993-01-01). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.degruyter.com/document/doi/10.1515/ijsl.1993.103.57/html">"Migration and language shift in urban India"</a>. International Journal of the Sociology of Language (103): 57–72. <a href="Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1515%2Fijsl.1993.103.57">10.1515/ijsl.1993.103.57</a>. <a href="ISSN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/issn/1613-3668">1613-3668</a>. <a href="S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:144434580">144434580</a>.</cite>

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<li id="cite_note-44"><a href="#cite_ref-44">^</a> <cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://indianexpress.com/article/research/international-mother-language-day-2018-ganesh-devy-indian-languages-5072487/">"'There are 600 potentially endangered languages in India… each dead language takes away a culture system'"</a>. The Indian Express. 2018-02-21. Retrieved 2022-08-13.</cite>

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<li id="cite_note-45"><a href="#cite_ref-45">^</a> <cite class="citation book cs1">Ethnologue. Languages of Asia. David Eberhard, Gary F. Simons, Charles D. Fennig (25 ed.). Dallas, Texas. 2022. <a href="ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <bdi>978-1-55671-518-1</bdi>. <a href="OCLC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="OCLC (identifier)">OCLC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/1325659099">1325659099</a>.</cite><code class="cs1-code">{{cite book}}</code>: CS1 maint: location missing publisher (link) CS1 maint: others (link)

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<li id="cite_note-46"><a href="#cite_ref-46">^</a> <cite id="CITEREFAndriyanti2019" class="citation journal cs1">Andriyanti, Erna (2019-08-28). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.17576%2Fgema-2019-1903-07">"Language Shift among Javanese Youth and Their Perception of Local and National Identities"</a>. GEMA Online Journal of Language Studies. 19 (3): 109–125. <a href="Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.17576%2Fgema-2019-1903-07">10.17576/gema-2019-1903-07</a>. <a href="ISSN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/issn/1675-8021">1675-8021</a>. <a href="S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:203056106">203056106</a>.</cite>

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<li id="cite_note-47"><a href="#cite_ref-47">^</a> <cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.accademiadellacrusca.it/it/lingua-italiana/consulenza-linguistica/domande-risposte/lingua-nazionale-ragioni-fiorentino">"Lingua nazionale: le ragioni del fiorentino"</a>. Accademia della Crusca.</cite>

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<li id="cite_note-48"><a href="#cite_ref-48">^</a> <cite id="CITEREFPorcellato" class="citation news cs1">Porcellato, Natascia. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.ilgazzettino.it/NORDEST/PRIMOPIANO/dialetto_veneto_italiano_famiglie_lavoro_osservatorio/notizie/1018496.shtml">"A Nordest il dialetto resiste ma si parla più in famiglia che al lavoro"</a>. Retrieved 1 November 2015.</cite>

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<li id="cite_note-49"><a href="#cite_ref-49">^</a> <cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.demos.it/a00479.php">"Il Nord Est e il dialetto - Osservatorio sul Nord Est - Demos & Pi"</a>. www.demos.it.</cite>

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<li id="cite_note-Istat2015-50">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Istat2015_50-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Istat2015_50-1">b</a> <cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.istat.it/it/files/2017/12/Report_Uso-italiano_dialetti_altrelingue_2015.pdf">"L'uso della lingua italiana, dei dialetti e delle lingue straniere, ISTAT, 2015"</a> (PDF).</cite>

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<li id="cite_note-51"><a href="#cite_ref-51">^</a> <cite id="CITEREFColuzzi2007" class="citation book cs1">Coluzzi, Paolo (2007). Minority Language Planning and Micronationalism in Italy. Peter Lang. p. 224.</cite>

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<li id="cite_note-52"><a href="#cite_ref-52">^</a> Toso, Fiorenzo. Lo spazio linguistico corso tra insularità e destino di frontiera, Università di Udine

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<li id="cite_note-53"><a href="#cite_ref-53">^</a> Bolognesi, Roberto (1998). The Phonology of Campidanian Sardinian: A Unitary Account of a Self-Organizing Structure. Holland Academic Graphics

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<li id="cite_note-54"><a href="#cite_ref-54">^</a> S'italianu in Sardìnnia , Amos Cardia, Iskra

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<li id="cite_note-Bolognesi-55"><a href="#cite_ref-Bolognesi_55-0">^</a> Bolognesi, Roberto; Heeringa, Wilbert. Sardegna fra tante lingue, pp.25, 2005, Condaghes

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<li id="cite_note-56"><a href="#cite_ref-56">^</a> <cite class="citation news cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.meilogunotizie.net/focus/storia/161/la-limba-proibita-nella-sardegna-del-700">"La limba proibita nella Sardegna del '700 da Ritorneremo, una storia tramandata oralmente"</a>. 11 July 2013. Retrieved 28 November 2015.</cite>

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<li id="cite_note-57"><a href="#cite_ref-57">^</a> La Nuova Sardegna, 04/11/10, Per salvare i segni dell'identità – di Paolo Coretti

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<li id="cite_note-58"><a href="#cite_ref-58">^</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.vle.lt/straipsnis/lenkijos-lietuviai/#gallery1-1">Lenkijos lietuviai</a>, The Great Encyclopedia of Lithuanians, article: Lithuanians in Poland

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<li id="cite_note-59"><a href="#cite_ref-59">^</a> <cite id="CITEREFAshraf2022" class="citation journal cs1">Ashraf, Hina (2022). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC8939399">"The ambivalent role of Urdu and English in multilingual Pakistan: a Bourdieusian study"</a>. Language Policy. 22 (1): 25–48. <a href="Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1007%2Fs10993-022-09623-6">10.1007/s10993-022-09623-6</a>. <a href="PMC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMC (identifier)">PMC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC8939399">8939399</a>. <a href="PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/35340722">35340722</a>.</cite>

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<li id="cite_note-60"><a href="#cite_ref-60">^</a> <cite id="CITEREFJohn2018" class="citation journal cs1">John, Asher (2018). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1080%2F21698252.2019.1681127">"Role of gender and urban/rural divide in language shift in Pakistani Punjab"</a>. Journal of World Languages. 5 (3): 188–205. <a href="Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1080%2F21698252.2019.1681127">10.1080/21698252.2019.1681127</a>. <a href="S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:210493333">210493333</a>.</cite>

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<li id="cite_note-61"><a href="#cite_ref-61">^</a> <cite id="CITEREFMatthias2010" class="citation journal cs1">Matthias, Weinreich (2010). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/25703832">"Language Shift in Northern Pakistan: The Case of Domaakí and Pashto"</a>. Iran & the Caucasus. 14 (1): 43–56. <a href="Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1163%2F157338410X12743419189342">10.1163/157338410X12743419189342</a>. <a href="JSTOR_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="JSTOR (identifier)">JSTOR</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/25703832">25703832</a>.</cite>

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<li id="cite_note-62"><a href="#cite_ref-62">^</a> Britton, A. Scott (2004). Guaraní-English/English-Guaraní Concise Dictionary. New York: <a href="Hippocrene_Books" title="Hippocrene Books">Hippocrene Books</a>.

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<li id="cite_note-63"><a href="#cite_ref-63">^</a> Mortimer, K 2006 "Guaraní Académico or Jopará? Educator Perspectives and Ideological Debate in Paraguayan Bilingual Education" Working Papers in Educational Linguistics 21/2: 45-71, 2006

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<li id="cite_note-64"><a href="#cite_ref-64">^</a> <cite id="CITEREFRomero2012" class="citation news cs1">Romero, Simon (12 March 2012). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.nytimes.com/2012/03/12/world/americas/in-paraguay-indigenous-language-with-unique-staying-power.html?ref=global-home&pagewanted=all">"In Paraguay, Indigenous Language With Unique Staying Power"</a>. The New York Times.</cite>

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<div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Sources">Sources</h2></div>

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<ul><li><cite id="CITEREFAnthony2007" class="citation cs2">Anthony, David W. (2007), The Horse The Wheel And Language. How Bronze-Age Riders From the Eurasian Steppes Shaped The Modern World, Princeton University Press</cite></li>

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<li>Bastardas-Boada, Albert (2002), <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://teluq.uquebec.ca/diverscite/SecArtic/Arts/2002/bastarda/entete.htm">"Biological and linguistic diversity: Transdisciplinary explorations for a socioecology of languages"</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20161220174537/http://teluq.uquebec.ca/diverscite/SecArtic/Arts/2002/bastarda/entete.htm">Archived</a> 2016-12-20 at the <a href="Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a>, Diverscité langues, vol. VII, Analyses et réflexions (on-line)</li>

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<li><cite id="CITEREFWitzel2001" class="citation cs2">Witzel, Michael (2001), <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.people.fas.harvard.edu/~witzel/EJVS-7-3.pdf">"Autochthonous Aryans? The Evidence from Old Indian and Iranian Texts"</a> (PDF), Electronic Journal of Vedic Studies, 7 (3): 1–115</cite></li>

<li><cite id="CITEREFWitzel2005" class="citation cs2">Witzel, Michael (2005), <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/EdwinBryantLauriePattonIndoAryanControversyEvidenceAndInferenceInIndianHistoryRoutledge2005">"Indocentrism"</a>, in Bryant, Edwin; Patton, Laurie L. (eds.), TheE Indo-Aryan Controversy. Evidence and inference in Indian history, Routledge</cite></li></ul>

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<div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Further_reading">Further reading</h2></div>

<ul><li><cite id="CITEREFFishman" class="citation cs2">Fishman, Joshua A., <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.degruyter.com/view/j/ling.2013.51.issue-jubilee/ling-2013-0038ad.pdf">LANGUAGE MAINTENANCE AND LANGUAGE SHIFT AS A FIELD OF INQUIRY. A DEFINITION OF THE FIELD AND SUGGESTIONS FOR ITS FURTHER DEVELOPMENT</a> (PDF)</cite></li>

<li><cite id="CITEREFThomasonKaufman1988" class="citation cs2">Thomason, Sarah Grey; Kaufman, Terrence (1988), Language Contact, Creolization, and Genetic Linguistics, University of California Press (published 1991), <a href="ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <bdi>978-0-520-07893-2</bdi></cite></li>

<li><cite id="CITEREFBlenchSpriggs" class="citation cs2 cs1-prop-long-vol">Blench, Roger; Spriggs, Matthew (eds.), Archaeology and Language, vol. IV: Language Change and Cultural Transformation, London: Routledge, pp. 138–148</cite></li>

<li>Bastardas-Boada, Albert. From language shift to language revitalization and sustainability. A complexity approach to linguistic ecology. Barcelona: Edicions de la Universitat de Barcelona, 2019. <a href="ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <bdi>978-84-9168-316-2</bdi></li></ul>

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="External_links">External links</h2></div>

<ul><li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.f.waseda.jp/buda/texts/langshift.html">Language Shift in Australia and Canada</a></li>

<li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.ethnologue.com/show_subject.asp?code=LSH">SIL Bibliography: Language shift - Ethnologue.com</a></li>

<li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20110125013031/http://www.ofa.gov.on.ca/docs/new_perspectives.pdf">The Rate of Assimilation : Francophone Minorities: Assimilation and Community Vitality - Department of Canadian Heritage</a></li></ul></div><div><div class="zim-footer">

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